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Chapter 34 - The Immune System and It's Diseases Flashcards

1
Q

What additives makes bacon carcinogenic and under what circumstances?

A

Nitrates and nitrites which are not carcinogenic.
BUT when nitrite interacts with certain components in red meat they form N-nitroso compounds that cause cancer.

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2
Q

What carcinogenic compounds can be found in bacon? The most notable of these is…

A

N-nitroso compounds.
The most notable of these is nitrosamine, which is quite highly carcinogenic.

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3
Q

___% of lung cancers are linked to smoking.
___% of bowel cancers can be linked to eating processed or red meat.

A

86% of lung cancers are linked to smoking.
21% of bowel cancers can be linked to eating processed or red meat.

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4
Q

What type of cancer is processed meat linked to?

A

Colon (and other digestive) cancers.

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5
Q

How did the meat industry respond to information that processed meats cause cancer?

A

They published articles casting doubt on the harmfulness of nitrate and exaggerated the risk from botulism on non-nitrated meats.

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6
Q

In the US and Canada, what does it really mean when meat is labeled as “natural” or “no added nitrates”?

A

They are NOT free of nitrates/ites, only free of synthetically added nitrates/ites.

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7
Q

Are naturally sourced nitrates better than synthetic ones with respect to the “chemistry” of processed meat?

A

No. The source of the nitrates and nitrites is irrelevant. Both are converted to the carcinogenic nitrosamines.

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8
Q

It is estimated that eating processed and red meats leads to a ____ % increase in bowel cancer.

A

21%

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9
Q

What type of diet can increase the effects of nitrosamines on a person’s health?

A

A diet with few vitamins, fruits or vegetables.

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10
Q

What are some risk factors for colon cancer other than an increased consumption of meat?

A

The consumption of low fibre diets with few vegetables or whole grains.

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11
Q

What is the immune system?

A

The body’s defence against disease causing agents.

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12
Q

What is innate immunity?

A

A type of immunity/defence that is present before exposure to pathogens and is effective from birth. It’s not specific and attacks all foreign invaders.

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13
Q

Innate immune defences include… (5)

A

Barriers (skin/mucous), phagocytic cells, antimicrobial proteins, the inflammatory response and
natural killer cells.

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14
Q

What are the first barriers/lines of defense of the innate immune response?

A

Skin and mucous membranes that protect organ systems open to the external environment.

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15
Q

What are phagocytic cells?

A

Phagocytosis = cell eating. They eat other cells.

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16
Q

Neutrophils, macrophages and natural killer cells are all types of _______ blood cells which are part of the ________ immune response. What do they do?

A

White blood cells. Innate immune response.
They’re all phagocytic cells that eat microbes, bacteria and viruses. Natural killer cells attack cancer and infected cells by releasing chemicals.

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17
Q

What are interferons and are they part of the innate or acquired immune response?

A

Interferons are defensive proteins produced by virus-infected cells that help to limit cell-to-cell spread. They are part of our innate immune response.

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18
Q

How do interferons protect cells against viral attack/infection?

A

They’re made by infected cells, released when the cell dies, enter healthy cells, and turn on genes in the healthy cell that code for proteins which inhibit viral reproduction.

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19
Q

There are about ___ different kinds of proteins that circulate in an inactive form in the blood. How are they activated and what do they do?

A

30 different kinds. Activated by microbes, resulting in a cascade of steps that lead to lysis of the invaded cells.

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20
Q

What are phagocytic cells and defensive proteins activated by?

A

They’re activated by particular pathogens getting into the body.

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21
Q

What is a Mast cell and what does it produce?

A

A type of white blood cell that produces histamine when stimulated to do so.

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22
Q

What are the visible symptoms of the inflammatory response? What causes these symptoms?

A

The affected area becomes red, warm, swollen and often sore. The local increase in blood flow, fluid, and cells.

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23
Q

What are the steps of a localized inflammatory response (5 steps)?

A

1 Damaged skin releases alarm signals (histamines). 2 Blood vessels dilate and leak. 3 Neutrophils leave the blood and enter affected tissue to clean it. 4 Pus that often forms and 5 clotting proteins and platelets seal the infected region.

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24
Q

What are the three key ingredients of pus?

A

Dead white blood cells, fluid leaked from capillaries, and other tissue debris.

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25
What happens during a systemic inflammatory response?
The number of white blood cells in the blood increase several-fold in a few hours. Fever is often present which may stimulate the phagocytic process and hasten tissue repair.
26
What can cause a systemic inflammatory response?
If microbes got into the bloodstream or released toxins into our system that got into the blood.
27
What is sepsis or septic shock and its symptoms?
A severe response of the body that occurs due to bacterial infection. Very high fever and dangerously low blood pressure. Toxins from the bacteria damage blood vessels.
28
What is the lymphatic system and its parts? Is it part of the innate or adaptive immune response?
A branching network of vessels, bone marrow, small organs, lymph nodes and lymph fluid. Can "clean" infections out of the circulatory system. Both!
29
What are lymph nodes? What can be found in them?
Little round organs packed with macrophages and lymphocytes (types of white blood cells).
30
What are the 2 key jobs of the lymphatic system?
1. Fight infection 2. Return tissue fluid back to the circulatory system.
31
How does the lymphatic system clean out infections?
Fluid diffuses into lymphatic capillaries. Lymph will carry infectious agents to the nodes where resident macrophages eat them up. It drains back to the circulatory system via two vessels fused with veins in the chest.
32
What causes lymph to move around the body? What prevents it from flowing backwards?
Lymphatic vessels rely on the movement of skeletal muscles to squeeze their fluid along. Valves prevent backflow.
33
How can lymph nodes change when fighting infections?
They swell and become tender, especially in the neck and armpits.
34
What is adaptive (or acquired) immunity? When does it generally "kick in"?
Immunity we acquire over our lifetime. It's activated after exposure to specific pathogens and provides a strong defence that's highly specific. If the innate immune response is not successful at eradicating a pathogen.
35
What two types of responses are part of adaptive immunity?
The humoral response and a cell-mediated response.
36
What is an antigen?
Antibody generating. Any molecule that can elicit an adaptive immune response.
37
What is an antibody? What do they do?
A protein dissolved in blood plasma that attaches to a specific kind of antigen. They mark antigens for elimination. They're highly specific.
38
What are some examples of antigens (try naming three)? Are they usually part of the host animal or not?
Proteins or polysaccharides on the surface of pathogens, viruses, bacteria, mould spores, pollen, dust, transplanted organs, bacterial toxins and bee venom. Usually do not belong to the host.
39
The _______ immune response is fast, general and always the same. The _________ immune response is slower but highly specific and has a remarkable memory.
The **innate** immune response is fast, general and always the same. The **adaptive** immune response is slower but highly specific and has a remarkable memory.
40
What are two ways adaptive immunity can be obtained?
Through past exposure to antigens, or vaccination/immunization.
41
How do vaccines work (spark notes version)?
It's a harmless variant or part of a disease-causing microbe that trains your immune system to fight the actual pathogen. Builds the adaptive immune response's memory.
42
What is active immunity?
When your immune system actively produces antibodies because its been "turned on" by vaccination or by exposure to antigens.
43
What is passive immunity?
When someone receives antibodies from an outside source instead of making the antibodies. This immunity is temporary. i.e. antibodies transmitted to a baby through breast milk.
44
How are anti-venoms made? How is this related to immunity?
It's an example of passive immunity. They're created by harvesting antibodies from animals previously immunized against the venom.
45
What are lymphocytes?
White blood cells that spend most of their time in the lymphatic system and are responsible for adaptive immunity.
46
What are the two types of lymphocytes we looked at? Where do they mature?
B cells and T cells. B cells mature in the bone marrow while the T cells mature in the thymus gland.
47
What type of immune response are B cells and T cells responsible for?
B cells = humoral immune response (humor = body fluid). T cells = cell-mediated and humoral immune responses.
48
What does the humoral immune response fight? How does it do this?
It fights bacteria and viruses in body fluids. B cells make and release antibodies that mark antigens by binding to them. These are easily recognized by phagocytic cells and 🔥destroyed🔥.
49
What does the cell-mediated immune response fight? How does it do this?
It fights body cells infected with pathogens. Some T cells attack unhealthy cells. Other T cells promote phagocytosis by other white blood cells and stimulate B cells to produce antibodies.
50
B and T cells have highly _________ antigen receptors on them – and each cell may have up to __________ receptors for only 1 specific antigen.
B and T cells have highly **specific** antigen receptors on them – and each cell may have up to **100,000** receptors for only 1 specific antigen.
51
Each of us may have ___________ of different kinds of B and T cells. How many of each kind are usually present?
Millions. There's a small population of each kind “lying in wait” in case they are needed.
52
What happens when a B cell encounters its specific antigen? What two types of cells are formed?
B cells will grow and divide. They form short lived effector cells that secrete antibodies and long-lived memory cells that may last for decades, ready to be reactivated.
53
The first exposure to an antigen is called a __________ immune response. The next time is called a _________ immune response. What makes these responses different?
Primary immune response, takes a couple days to respond. Antibodies peak a couple of weeks after initial infection. Secondary immune response, much faster (2-7 days vs. 10-17 days) and stronger because memory cells already exist, ready to take action.
54
Do antibodies kill pathogens?
Antibodies do not kill pathogens. They mark pathogens for destruction by other parts of the immune system.
55
What are "self" proteins? What is a self-nonself complex?
Proteins on the surface of cells that identify them as part of our body. A "self" protein bound to an antigen present on the surface of an infected cell.
56
What happens when a cell becomes infected? How does it communicate with other cells?
“Self” proteins bind to the antigen and present it on the surface of the cell (a self-nonself complex). This alerts Helper T cells specific for that antigen.
57
How does a Helper T cell respond when activated by an infected cell (3 steps)?
1. It makes more copies of itself. 2. It makes signalling molecules to turn on B cells that will produce more antibodies. 3. It will activate cytotoxic T cells to kill the infected cells.
58
How do cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells (3 steps)?
1. Identify infected cells (via their self-nonself complex) and bind to them. 2. Synthesizes proteins that poke holes in the infected cell. 3. T cell enzymes enter the infected cell and promote cell death.
59
The immune system relies on ___________ _____________. All cells have specific ___________ on them that identify them.
The immune system relies on **molecular identification**. all cells have specific **proteins** on them that identify them.
60
What is the flu?
A respiratory infection caused by the influenza virus. There are many strains of the influenza virus, each with slightly different proteins.
61
How are flu vaccines made?
By mixing a virulent strain with a avirulent strain inside a host cell. This makes vaccine strains with the antigens of the virulent strain but no genes that cause the disease.
62
The _________ Flu is an example of the flu that affected ____% of the world's population between 1918-1919.
The **Spanish Flu** is an example of the flu that affected 33% (1/3, 500 million people) of the world's population between 1918-1919.
63
Is the stomach flu actually a flu?
No, there is no such thing as a stomach flu.
64
If you're throwing up for a day or so, you probably caught a _________ and if you have diarrhea you probably caught a _________.
If you're throwing up for a day or so, you probably caught a **norovirus** and if you have diarrhea you probably caught a **rotavirus**.
65
What is one of the most important things you can do to prevent yourself from becoming sick?
WASH YOUR HANDS!
66
Does the measles mumps rubella (MMR) vaccine cause autism?
NO
67
Why do people think the measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine cause autism? Why shouldn't people be worried about this?
In 1998 one article identified a link between the MMR vaccine and autism. The study was only done on 12 children, no one has been able to reproduce the results, the researchers misrepresented the data and had a conflict of interest, and the paper has been completely retracted.
68
What is the underlying cause of most autoimmune diseases?
If T cells start an immune response against the molecules of our own bodies, attacking cells labeled with self-proteins.
69
What are MHC molecules and what do they do?
Major histocompatibility complex molecules. They're the main proteins that identify our cells as self.
70
MHC molecules are coded for by _________ (#) of different ___________.
MHC molecules are coded for by **hundreds** of different **alleles**.
71
What are the 3 ways the immune system can “go wrong” and result in disease?
Hyperactive immune system (allergies). Poorly functioning immune system (unable to fight infections). Immune system that attacks itself (autoimmune diseases).
72
What are 3 diseases caused by a hyperactive immune system?
Allergies, athsma (inflammation of airways), eczema (inflammation of skin).
73
What is an allergy? An allergen?
The immune system overreacting to harmless antigens in our surroundings. Symptoms are triggered by histamines released from mast cells. An antigen that causes an allergy.
74
What is a histamine? What does it do?
A chemical alarm signal released by injured cells of vertebrates that causes blood vessels to dilate during an inflammatory response.
75
What is an antihistamine?
A drug that interferes with the action of histamine, providing temporary relief from an allergic reaction.
76
What are some common symptoms of allergies?
Symptoms may occur in the nasal passages, bronchi and skin, and include sneezing, runny nose, coughing, wheezing and itching.
77
What is the first stage of developing an allergy called and what immune response is it similar to?
Sensitization. It's similar to the primary immune response.
78
How does sensitization to an allergen work?
Allergens bind to B cell which produce antibodies that attach to mast cells. They secrete histamines that trigger the inflammatory response.
79
How does the body respond differently to subsequent exposures to an allergen? What immune response is this similar to?
The body responds much faster and more severely, similar to a secondary immune response. Allergens bond to antibodies attached to mast cells which release histamine and trigger allergic symptoms.
80
What is anaphylactic shock?
The sudden dilation of blood vessels due to the release of lots of inflammatory chemicals. It can cause a fatal drop in blood pressure (shock). Happens in the most severe case of allergies.
81
What is used to counteract the effects of anaphylactic shock?
The hormone epinephrine (often from an Epipen).
82
What is hygiene hypothesis? What evidence is there for this?
Having a clearer environment is leading to more allergies. 3-5% annual increase in immune system diseases while bacterial infections and intestinal worms have declined. Allergies are less common in rural areas where kids are exposed to more microbes.
83
In a healthy individual the humoral and cell-mediated responses are ________.
Balanced.
84
What can happen if a person is not repeatedly exposed to microbes and parasites during early childhood?
The cell-mediated immunity may remain weak without any practice and the humoral responses may overcompensate leading to allergic diseases.
85
How can air pollution affect the immune system?
Seems like some pollutants can impair the immune system and disrupt B cells by killing them or stopping their growth.
86
What are some diseases of a poorly functioning immune system (3)?
Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID, weak immune system). Temporary acquired immune deficiencies (chemo, some meds, smoking, alcohol, poor nutrition and lack of sleep). Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, HIV weakens the immune system).
87
What are some diseases caused by the immune system attacking itself (autoimmune diseases)? Try to name 5.
Rheumatoid arthritis, Type 1 diabetes, Lupus, Psoriasis, Inflammatory Bowel Disease (ulcerative colitis and Chrohn’s Disease), MS, Parkinson’s Disease, possibly ALS and Alzheimer’s.
88
What is MS? How do MS rates compare to other countries? What is the greatest risk factor?
Multiple Sclerosis. When the immune system attacks nerves cells. Canada has one of the highest MS rates. Exposure to environmental factors PRIOR to the age of 15 (not sure why tho).
89
From a health perspective, why should we care about being overweight or obese or chronic stress?
These can increase a person's risk for many diseases, sleep problems, some cancers, mental illness, stroke, high blood pressure, diabetes, pain and low quality of life.
90
What can result from a partial artery blockage in the heart? What about a full blockage?
Angina (chest pain) or shortness of breath. Damage to tissues (cell death) called a myocardial infarction (a heart attack).
91
What is it called when an artery in the brain becomes blocked?
A stroke.
92
What substance does the pancreas make? Why is it important? What disease is this related to?
Insulin (helps the body store and use sugar). Diabetes, when the pancreas makes too little insulin, or the body does not respond appropriately to insulin.
93
What's the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?
Type 1 is an autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks the pancreas. Usually appears in kids. Type 2 caused by obesity and lack of physical activity. Usually appears in adults and can be prevented through a healthy lifestyle.
94
What is Alzheimer’s Disease?
A type of dementia that causes problems with memory, thinking and behaviour. It usually develops late in life and gets worse over time.
95
What is Parkinson’s Disease?
A progressive disorder of the nervous system that affects movement. It develops gradually, usually begins on one side of the body and remains worse on that side.
96
What is ALS?
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease affecting motor neurons, with no cure or effective treatment. Stephen Hawking had this.

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