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Psychology Midterm #2 > Chapter 3 - The biological bases of behaviour > Flashcards

Chapter 3 - The biological bases of behaviour Flashcards

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1
Q

What are neurons and what do they do?

A

Neurons are individual cells in the nervous system that: transmit, receive and integrate information. (80-100 Billions Neurons)

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2
Q

What are Gilal cells?

A

Gilal Cells (Gila) found in the nervous system and provide support, nourishment and protection to neurons. (clean up damage, release chemicals to avoid neurons being “fixed”. They form a “blood brain barrier” prevent neuro toxins from entering the brain.)
◦ Gore Downie - died from a glia blastoma. Brain tumours are often linked to glia cells because they are constantly forming. Not always terminal cases!
◦ Involved in more functions than we think! Pain perception, they do more than support the neurons.

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3
Q

What are the three parts of Neurons? What do those three parts do?

A

3 parts:
1. Dendrites - branching region (pick up info from neighbouring cells)
2. Cell body or soma (integration of information)
3. Axon - ‘root’ (messages pass along the axon)
Flow of info ——> Dendrite - soma - axon

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4
Q

What is the Myelin Sheath?

A

Myelin Sheath insulates the axon and speeds transmission of signals, derived from specialized glial cells (fatty substance) (glia cell one type for brain+spinal cord and one type for other parts)
◦ sensory information - needs to happen quickly!
◦ Certain diseases occur from myelin sheath issues. Multiple sclerosis - damage to myelin, now there is signal loss due to degeneration of myelin sheaths.

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5
Q

What are terminal buttons?

A

Terminal buttons - small knobs at the end of axon - secretes neurotransmitters (chemical relese)

Flow of info ——> Dendrite - soma - axon - protrusions

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6
Q

What are the synapse?

A

Synapse - gap or synaptic cleft where information is transmitted from one neuron to the next (Pre-synaptic cell –> synaptic cleft –> post-synaptic cell)

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7
Q

What is neural impulse? Who first explained it?

A
  • how cells communicate. Hodgkin and Huxley (1952) first explained the nerve impulse
  • Found from dissecting a very large axon from a squid. Found that fluid inside and outside had different ions
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8
Q

What is a neuron like at rest? What is “resting potential”?

A
  • Neuron at rest - negative charge on inside compared to the outside of the cell
    ◦ Resting potential = stable negative charge of -70 mV when cell is inactive
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9
Q

What is the action potential?

A
  • A brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an axon.
    Action potential -> reversal of charge -> channels open and nerve impulse moves along the membrane
    ◦ inside of cell becomes more positive relative to the outside. Outside becomes increasingly more negative in then returns to resting potential.
    ◦ All takes place over 1 millisecond.
    ◦ Changes in ion flow.
    ◦ Sodium ions flow into the cell.
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10
Q

What is the absolute refractory period?

A

Absolute refractory period (the hump!) - no new action potential can be used at this time. It is the minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin.

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11
Q

What is the relative refractory period?

A

Relative refractory period (the dip) - could generate another action potential, but will require greater amount. (When toilet is basically done flushing and you could flush again.).

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12
Q

What is the all or none law?

A

principle that there will be either a full response or no response at all for an individual neuron. Each action potential:
◦ is of the same magnitude - appear in exactly the same way (same magnitude)
◦ has a variable firing rate (action potential being sent)
◦ travels extremely fast

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13
Q

What is a neurotransmitter?

A

chemical that transmits information from one neuron to the other) is stored in synaptic vesicles —-> is then released into synaptic cleft and binds to receptor sites

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14
Q

What is postsynaptic potential? What are excitatory and inhibitory potentials?

A

neurotransmitter produces a change in voltage at receptor site
◦ Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) - depolarizing effect (causes the postsynaptic membrane to become less negative)
◦ Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) - (hyper)polarizing effect (causes membrane to become more negative)
‣ NOT the same as action potential

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15
Q

What are the five steps involved in the removal of neurotransmitter from the synapse?

A
  1. Synthesis and storage of neurotransmitter molecules in synaptic vesicles
  2. Relese of neurotransmitter molecules into synaptic cleft
  3. Binding of neurotransmitters at receptor sites on postsynaptic membrane
  4. Inactivation (by enzymes) or removal (drifting away) of neurotransmitters
  5. Reuptake of neurotransmitters sponged up by the presynaptic neuron
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16
Q

What is long term potential? (LTP)

A

refers to a long lasting increase in neural excitability in synapses along a specific neural pathway. Repeated synaptic activity strengthens the synapse.

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17
Q

What is synaptic pruning?

A

the nervous system forms more synapses than needed and then gradually eliminates less active synapses. Elimination of them = pruning. ex. # of synapses in the human visual cortex peaks when we are about one year old and then declines.
◦ Some connections aren’t useful, will get “pruned away”

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18
Q

What are the three different class of neurotransmitters discussed?

A

◦ Small molecule - Some are manufactured very quickly - small sets of chemical reactions
◦ Neuropeptides - take longer to be form, actions over longer time period
◦ Other - gases that immediately cross the membrane ex. Erection - viagra actions of the gracious transmitters

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19
Q

What is an agonist vs an antagonist?

A

Agonist - chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.
◦ Acetylcholine - (agonist=nicotine (binds at some sites “nicotinic”)

Antagonist - chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter
◦ Acetylcholine (antagonist = curare (indigenous people, tips of arrows (paralyze))

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20
Q

What is acetylcholine?

A

Acetylcholine (ACh) - Functions and Characteristics - Activates motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles, contributes to the regulation of attention, arousal and memory, some ACh receptors stimulated by nicotine. Decreases with age (arousal, memory, response times slower etc.)

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21
Q

What is dopamine?

A

Dopamine (DA) - Contributes to control of voluntary movement, pleasurable emotions, decreases levels associated with Parkinson’s disease, Overactivity at DA synapses associated with schizophrenia, Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at DA synapses. (implicated in drug addictions, voluntary movements use dopamine - without dopamine may have decreased movement.)

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22
Q

What is norepinephrine?

A

Norepinephrine (NE) - Contributes to modulation of mood and arousal, cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at NE synapses. (concentration nerve transmitter, ADHD, cocaine has effects on this. Adderall)

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23
Q

What is serotonin?

A

Serotonin - Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, aggression, Abnormal level may contribute to depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Prozac and similar anti-depressant drugs affect serotonin circuits

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24
Q

What is GABA?

A

GABA - Serves as widely distributed inhibitory transmitter, valium and similar anti-anxiety drug work at GABA synapses. (calming, inhibitory in nature, dampening activity. Anti-anxiety meds bind to Gaba and alcohol does the same Interaction can lead to death!)

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25
Q

What are endorphins?

A

Endorphins - Resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects, contribute to pain relief and some pleasurable emotions.

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26
Q

What is glutamate?

A

Glutamate - Glutamate is an amino acid that has both excitatory and inhibitory effects. It has been implicated in learning and memory.

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27
Q

What are the two primary systems in the human nervous system?

A

The central nervous system

The peripheral nervous system

28
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system? What are it’s two subdivisions?

A

Peripheral Nervous system (PNS) - outside of the central system, made up of all the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. Nerves are bundles of neuron fibres (axons) that are routed together in the peripheral system. Can be subdivided into two parts:
The somatic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system

29
Q

What is the somatic nervous system?

A

◦ Somatic Nervous System is made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors.
‣ AFFERENT nerve fibres carry information inward to the central nervous system.
‣ EFFERENT nerve fibres are axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body.
‣ Trick to remeber: SAME (Sensory pathways are AFFERENT, Motorpathways are EFFERENT)
‣ For example if you stepped on a tack - your AFFERENT pathways would feel the pain and send to your central system, EFFERENT information travels to foot to move it away

30
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A

◦ Autonomic Nervous System is made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth m uscles and glands (we don’t have control). It consists of two subdivisions:
‣ SYMPATHETIC - division of the nervous system prepares the body for action, mobilizes the body’s resources for emergencies (dilates pupils, relaxes bronchi, accelerates, strengthens heartbeat, inhibits stomach activity). For example you need to run across campus. Mobilization of resources. (Fight/Flight)
‣ PARASYMPATHETIC- division of the nervous systems that conserves bodily resources, system returns to a resting state. (contracts pupils, constricts bronchi, slows heartbeat and stimulates digestive activity). Para-paralysis, conserves energy, powers things down. For example sitting in class (Rest/Digest)

31
Q

What is the central nervous system? What does it consist of?

A

Central Nervous System (CNS)
consists of the brain and the spinal cord
◦ Meninges enclosing sheath that protects the CNS (Brain and spinal cord is wrapped in a three layer thing, very tough, meant to protect the brain. Structure that surrounds the brain)
◦ Ventricles hollow cavities within the brain (4 cavities)
‣ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) moves through the cavities:
‣ For temperature regulation and waste management in the brain. Shock protection/absorber.

32
Q

What is the result of spinal cord damage?

A

◦ Spinal cord damage - In isolation - cut to spinal cord right below head, some reflexes do move even with sever. But overall the brain is the the main movement controller.
‣ Paraplegic (lower damage) - loss of sensation and movement in legs
‣ Quadriplegic (high damage) - loss of sensation and movement in all four limbs

33
Q

What are four research methods for looking inside the brain?

A

Electrical recordings, lesioning, virtual lesions (TMS), electrical stimulation of the brain.

34
Q

What are electrical recordings? How do these two aspects present themselves in different stages of consiousness?

A

◦ Electrical recordings of brain activities, recorded at the scalp
‣ Electroencephalograph (eeg) - device that monitors electrical activity of the brain over time to show the functioning of the brain.
* Usually examines sleep but there are types that do activities

	‣ Two aspects of brain activity 
		* Amplitude  (measured in voltage) 
		* Frequency (cycles per second) 
			◦ Awake (similar to dreaming) - low voltage, high frequency 
			◦ Drowsy - higher voltage, slower frequency brain waves 
			◦ Deep, dreamless sleep - high voltage, low frequency
35
Q

What are two aspects of brain activity we can measure using electrical recordings?

A

‣ Two aspects of brain activity
* Amplitude (measured in voltage)
* Frequency (cycles per second)
◦ Awake (similar to dreaming) - low voltage, high frequency
◦ Drowsy - higher voltage, slower frequency brain waves
◦ Deep, dreamless sleep - high voltage, low frequency

36
Q

What is lesioning?

A
  • process of destroying a portion of the brain to determine “Which behaviours have been affected”
    ◦ hard to contextual patterns of behaviour (before the injury)
    ◦ Uses animals, creates lesions in animals brain, which behaviours are affected?
    ‣ Stereotactic instrument - small current damaging that part of the brain.
37
Q

What are virtual lesions or transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

A

◦ technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain.
‣ magnetic field that pulses that can increase or decrease brain activity in that region, only penetrates 2cm

38
Q

What is electrical stimulation of the brain?

A

◦ where a weak current is sent into a brain structure to stimulate or activate it.
‣ (situation where individual already needed brain surgery, ex. Epilepsy removing small part of the brain, keep them awake), not typically used now but was used.

39
Q

What are the three brain imaging procedures discussed?

A

Computerized tomography (CT) scan
PET (positron emission tomography) scans
MRI (Magnetic Resonance imaging) and functional MRI (fMRI)

40
Q

What are CT scans?

A

Computerized tomography (CT) scan
* CT, CAT, Computerized tomography
◦ computer enhanced ex-ray of the brain structure from many angles
◦ Two dimentional
◦ Least expensive
◦ Not very crisp, more global structures
◦ Images tumour, post treatment
◦ Can’t give us info about an active brain

41
Q

What are PET scans?

A

PET (positron emission tomography) scans
* uses radio active markers to map chemical activity in the brain over time
◦ Travels to areas that are active
◦ Examines blood flow/metabolic activity in a functioning brain
◦ Which parts were the most active during x tasks

42
Q

What are MRI or functional MRI’s?

A

MRI (Magnetic Resonance imaging) and functional MRI (fMRI)
* Basic MRI uses magnetic fields, radio waves and computerized enhancements to map out brain structures in detail and 3D (much clearer than CT)
◦ Very expensive
* FMRI consists of new variations of MRI technology that monitor blood flow and oxygen consumptions in the brain to identify areas of high activity.
◦ gives us crisp image and information about which parts are active
◦ Takes a while for blood be detected for it to be imaged
◦ Slower technique

43
Q

What are the three parts we can break the brain down into?

A

the hindbrain, the midbrain and the forebrain

44
Q

What is the hindbrain? What four elements did we dicuss relating to the hindbrain?

A
  • Includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of the brain stem: the medulla and the ponds
    ◦ Cerebellum - (“little brain”) is a large deeply folded structure next to the back surface of the brainstem. Involved in complex movement.
    ◦ Medulla - attaches to spinal cord, is largely in of charge of unconscious but important functions (circulating blood, breathing, regulating reflexes like sneezing, coughing and salivating).
    ◦ Pons - bridge of fibres that connect brain stem with the cerebellum. Contains clusters of cell bodies involved with sleep and arousal.
    ◦ Reticular formation - band of fibres running through both the hindbrain and the mid brain. Helps with modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing and pain perception. Also known for role in arousal and sleep.
45
Q

What is the midbrain?

A
  • the segment of the brainstem located between the hindbrain and the forebrain
    ◦ region that integrates sensory processing, including smell, visions and hearing
    ◦ also plays a role in Orientation orienting to information
    ◦ Uses dopamine as the key neurotransmitter.
46
Q

What is the diencephalon? What are the two components?

A

Diencephalon
* Thalamus - relay centre for cortex; handles incoming and outgoing signals. Integration, sensations transitioned on to other parts of the brain. All sensory information must pass through to get to the cerebral cortex.
* Hypothalamus - near the base of the forebrain involved in regulating basic biological needs such as thirst, hunger, sex drive, temperature of the body. (under the thalamus, no larger than a kidney bean)

47
Q

What is the forebrain?

A
  • Largest and most complex regions of the brain encompassing many structures
48
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

◦ Limbic system is a loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas.
‣ seat of emotion and memory
‣ contains:
* hippocampus plays a role in memory and spatial information
* amygdala - learning of fear responses and the processing of other basic emotional

49
Q

What is the cerebrum?

A

◦ Cerebrum is the largest and most complex part of the human brain.
‣ Involved in most complex mental activities including learning, thinking, remembering, and consciousness.

50
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A
  • cerebral cortex - the convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum
51
Q

What are the cerebral hemisphere’s four lobes?

A

◦ Occipital - visual processing
◦ Parietal lobe - sensory information about our body in space and touch
◦ Temporal lobe - language/auditory processing
◦ Frontal lobe - largest lobe - primary motor cortex

52
Q

What are the sulci and gyri

A
  • The “cracks” in the brain are called sulci and the bumps are called gyri
53
Q

What is the corpus callosum? What is the split brain surgery?

A

◦ Corpus callosum - fibres that connect the two cerebral hemispheres.
‣ split brain surgery: doctors cut fibres so seizures wouldn’t go between the brain hemispheres to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures.

54
Q

What is meant by “the plasticity of the brain”

A
  • research has demonstrated that the anatomical structure and functional organization of the brain is more malleable than previously assumed. Brain and it’s connections can change.
55
Q

What are the three plasticity of the brain points?

A
  1. Role of experience experience can sculpt features of the brain structure. (ex. violin experience, contralateral connections) Ex. if you manipulate with right hand changes will happen in left brain.
  2. Reorganization due to damage damage to incoming sensory pathways or the destruction of brain tissue can lead to neural reorganization. (example shown in class where they removed half of a girl’s brain, because they changed at young age it had the ability to grow, young and right hemisphere)
  3. Neurogenesis (birth of new neurons) in the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb the adult brain can generate new neurons certain environmental factors either decrease or increase generation rate.
56
Q

What is the role of the left vs right hemisphere’s of the brain?

A
  • Left hemisphere - usually processes language, characterized as the “dominant hemisphere”
  • Right hemisphere - viewed as non dominant or lesser hemisphere (non verbal, spacial, musical)
57
Q

Explain Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas?

A

on left or “dominant hemisphere”
◦ Broca’s area - is important to speech production (specific damage to broca’s area causes difficulty presenting but what they are saying makes sense)
◦ Wernicke’s area - important for speech comprehension (aphasia - fluent but what they are saying doesn’t make sense - can be following a stroke)

58
Q

What have researchers found about cerebral laterality through split brain research?

A
  • Split-brain research - research around when the corpus callosum was severed because of epilepsy
    ◦ the logic behind this is linked to the sensory and motor information links between the two hemispheres.
    ‣ each hemisphere’s primary connections are to the opposite side of the side.
    ‣ ex. sounds in the right ear are registered in the left hemisphere first.
59
Q

Describe what happened to split brain patient patient research?

A

◦ presented visual stimuli (pictures, words, symbols) in only one visual field so stimuli would only be sent to one hemisphere.
‣ when images were in the Right visual field (VF) (thus sent to the left hemisphere) = patients could name and describe
‣ when images were in the Left visual field (VF) (thus sent to the right hemisphere) = patients could point or draw but could not cannot name
* these findings supported the notion that language is housed in the left hemisphere.

60
Q

What is the endocrine?

A
  • body’s second communication system other than the nervous system
61
Q

What is the endocrine system?

A

The Endocrine System
* consists of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning
◦ hormones are the chemicals released by the endocrine system.

62
Q

What are chromosomes and DNA?

A

Chromosomes and DNA
* Chromosomes are threadlike strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules that carry genetic information
◦ human somatic cell - 23 pairs of chromosomes
◦ each chromosome in turn contains thousands of biochemical messengers called genes

63
Q

What are genes?

A
  • DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmissions
    ◦ “carry hereditary info”
  • except identical twins, everyone has a unique set of genes
64
Q

What are family studies?

A
  • In family studies, researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to assess how much they resemble one another on a specific trait.
65
Q

What are twin studies?

A
  • In twin studies, researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait
    ◦ Identical (monozygotic) twins emerge from one zygote that splits for unknown reasons (very similar genotype)
    ◦ Fraternal (dizygotic) twins result when two eggs are fertilized simultaneously by different sperm cells, forming two separate zygotes.
66
Q

What are adoption studies?

A
  • In adoption studies, researchers assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents
    ◦ Nature vs nurture
67
Q

What are epigenetics?

A
  • is the study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve modifications to the DNA sequence
    ◦ suggests that environment can have an impact on genetic expression in future generations
    ‣ Adaptations (certain genes damped/silences leading to alterations)

Psychology Midterm #2 (2 decks)

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