Chapter 3- Stress as an example of a psychobiological process Flashcards
internal stressor
originates within the individual;
for example, a personal problem that causes concern
about the potential consequences or the experience of
physical pain that may be perceived as signalling an
untimely illness.
external stressor
originates outside the
individual from situations and events in the
environment; for example, having too much
homework, being nagged by parents, being in an
overcrowded train or being threatened by someone
outside a nightclub.
Chronic stress
stress that continues for a prolonged
period of time. It involves ongoing demands, pressures
and worries that are constant and long-lasting.
Acute stress
stress that lasts for a relatively short
time. The body typically bounces back well from
acute stress if the stress experienced is managed by
the person.
fight-or-flight-or-freeze response
an
involuntary response to a threatening, fearful or
otherwise stressful situation, involving physiological
changes produced by the sympathetic nervous system
in readiness for:
* fight — confronting and fighting off the threat
* flight — escaping by running away to safety
* freeze — keeping absolutely still and silent to
avoid detection.
The bodily changes that characterise the fight and
flight reactions
- increased heart rate and blood pressure
- redistribution of blood supply from the skin and
intestines to the skeletal muscles - increased breathing rate (to increase oxygen
supply) - increased glucose (sugar) secretion by the liver
(for energy) - dilation of the pupils (so the eyes can take in as
much light as possible) - suppression of functions that are not
immediately essential in order to conserve energy
gut–brain axis (GBA)
a bidirectional (‘two-
way’), multi-faceted communication link between
the central and enteric nervous systems. It involves
direct and indirect pathways between cognitive and
emotional areas in the brain with the gastrointestinal
tract.
Gut microbiota
Each individual has a personal composition of gut
microbiota comprising all the microorganisms (such as
bacteria, viruses and fungi) present in their digestive
tract.
vagus nerve
is a cranial nerve that carries sensory and motor fibers. It creates a pathway that interfaces with the parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract
General Adaptation
Syndrome (GAS)
a three-stage physiological
response to stress that occurs regardless of the
stressor that is encountered.
stages of GAS
Stage 1
alarm reaction which occurs when the person
(or animal) first becomes aware of the stressor.——-> At first, the body goes into a temporary state of
shock, and its ability to deal with the stressor falls
below its normal level.
counter shock, the sympathetic nervous
system is activated and the body’s resistance to the
stressor increases.
Stage 2 of GAS
resistance stage, the body’s resistance
to the particular stressor rises above normal. The
intense arousal of the alarm reaction stage diminishes
through activity of the parasympathetic system,
but physiological arousal remains at a level above
normal
Stage 3 of GAS
exhaustion stage, some of the alarm
reaction changes may reappear, but the body cannot
sustain its resistance and the effects of the stressor
can no longer be dealt with.
strengths of GAS
-Measures predictable pattern that can be measured in individuals
-Identifies biological processes associated with body’s stress response
-Among first researchers that suggested stress could weaken body’s ability to resist illness
limitations of GAS
-Research was not conducted on humans
-Doesn’t account for individual participant differences and psychological factors
Transactional Model of
Stress and Coping
proposes that stress involves an
encounter (‘transaction’) between an individual and
their external environment, and that a stress response
depends upon the individual’s evaluation (‘appraisal’)
of the relevance of the stressor to his or her wellbeing
and their ability to cope with it.
primary appraisal
we
evaluate, or ‘judge’, the significance
of the event and whether anything
is at stake in this encounter. For
example, we may ask questions
such as ‘Is this something I have to
deal with?’, ‘Am I in trouble?
types of primary appraisal
- harm/loss — an assessment of
how much damage has already
occurred (e.g. ‘I have lost my
job’) - threat — an assessment of
harm/loss that may not have
yet occurred but could occur in
the future (e.g. ‘I mightn’t be
able to afford the rent’), and - challenge — an assessment of
the potential for personal gain
or growth from the situation
(e.g. ‘I’ll get any other job I
can and will learn to budget
and save money’).
secondary appraisal,
we evaluate our ability to
control or overcome the situation in which we find
ourselves. This includes an evaluation of our coping
options and resources for dealing with the event.
strengths of transactional model
- focuses on psychological determinants of the
stress response over which we have control - emphasises the personal nature and individuality
of the stress response - views stress as an interaction with the environment
in which the individual has an active role - respects personal appraisals of a situation,
thereby interpreting the situation from an
individual’s perspective - explains why individuals respond in different
ways to the same types of stressors - allows for the fact that stressors and the
circumstances under which they occur can
change over time - allows us to change our thinking about a stressor
and our response - proposes different methods for managing
psychological responses to stressors.
limitation of transactional model
- difficult to test through experimental research
because of the subjective nature of individual
responses to stressors - individuals may not always be conscious of all
the factors causing them to experience a stress
response - we can experience a stress response without ever
having thought about a situation or event (i.e.
appraisal is not essential) - overlooks physiological responses to a stressor
- the linear approach of the model does not allow
for individual variation in progression through
the stages - primary and secondary appraisals can interact
with one another and are often undertaken
simultaneously - primary and secondary appraisals are difficult to
isolate for study as separate variables.
coping
a process involving ‘cognitive and behavioural efforts
to manage specific internal and/or external stressors
that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources
of the person’ in a stressful situation.
A coping strategy
a
specific method, behavioural or psychological, that
people use to manage or reduce the stress produced
by a stressor.
context-
specific effectiveness
when there is a match or ‘good
fit’ between the coping strategy that is used and the
stressful situation.
coping flexibility
to
refer to the ability to effectively modify or adjust
one’s coping strategies according to the demands
of different stressful situations.
coping flexibility includes the
abilities to:
- recognise whether the use of a flexible coping
strategy is appropriate for a specific situation - select a coping strategy that suits the situational
circumstances - recognise when the coping strategy being used is
ineffective - discontinue an ineffective coping strategy
- produce and implement an alternative coping
strategy when required.
Approach coping strategies
involve efforts to
confront a stressor and deal directly with it and its effects.
Avoidance coping strategies
involve efforts that
evade a stressor and deal indirectly with it and its
effects.
