Chapter 3: Stress Flashcards
1
Q
gl
Stress
A
- A physiological and psychological response produced by internal or external stressors
- One is considered to be in a state of stress when they experiences intense (acute) / prolonged (chronic) arousal
NOTE: Arousal refers to an individual’s state of alertness.
2
Q
Eustress vs distress
A
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Eustress – positive psychological state
- Can result in motivation, determination, excitedness
- Improves focus, perfomance and memory
- ↑ physiological arousal due to +ve resp to stressor
-
Distress – negative psychological state
- Can result in anxiety and frustration
- Impairs focus, performance and memory
- Decreases energy over an extended period of time
3
Q
Stressor
A
- Any stimulus that produces stress
- Highly subjective
4
Q
Internal and external stressors
A
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Internal – originate within the individual
- Personal perception of events/biological responses
- E.g. attitude, low self-esteem, ilness, sleep deprivation, NS dysfunction
-
External – originate outside the individual
- Stimulation from interaction with the environment
- E.g. exams, finance, long working hours, alcohol
5
Q
Psychological stress responses
A
- Behavioural – changes in eating and sleeping habits
- Emotional – irritability and aggression
- Cognitive – ↓ concentration and impaired memory
- Involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
6
Q
Physiological vs psychological stress responses
A
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Physiological – body
- E.g. heart palpitations, dizziness, fevers
-
Psychological – behaviour, emotion, cognitions
- E.g. mood swings, changes in sleep
7
Q
Acute stress
A
- Lasts for a relatively short time
- Governed by the hormone adrenaline
- Benefits – adrenaline release can enhance problem-solving abilities or physical performance
- Risks – elevated blood pressure or reduced motivation to persist with a task
- E.g. exams, starting a new job, deadlines
8
Q
Chronic stress
A
- Continues for a prolonged period of time
- Governed by the hormone cortisol
- Stressor doesn’t need to remain physically present to have its effects (recollections of the stressor can sustain chronic stress)
- Associated with long-lasting pressures and worries
- E.g. grief, long-term unemployment, social isolation
9
Q
Stress hormones
A
-
Adrenaline and noradrenaline
- Aka epinephrine and norephinephrine
- Circulate the blood to activate organs (e.g. lungs)
- ↑ physiological processes to prepare body for action
-
Cortisol is the most abundant of these hormones
- Energises the body by ↑ energy supply and enhancing metabolism in the long term
- Acts slower and has prolonged effects
- Prepares the body for action and maintains its high levels of alertness
10
Q
Fight-or-flight-or-freeze response
A
-
Involuntary response to a stressful situation in readiness for:
- Confronting the threat (fight)
- Running away to safety (flight)
- Staying still and silent to avoid detection (freeze)
- The body is quickly energised to react to a threat/emergency
- Occur automatically but can be conditioned/learnt
- Enable us to deal with threats to help minimise harm
11
Q
Fight or flight response
A
- Initiated by the sympathetic NS and stress hormones
- Energy from non-essential body systems directed to those that facilitate a fight or flight response
- Can be adaptive or not adaptive
- Involves a two-step process
- Both the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS are activated when considering as an initial unitary response
12
Q
Two components of the fight or flight response
A
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Part 1 (acute)
- Amygdala detects the threat and sends a signal to the hypothalamus
- Hypothalamus activates the sympathetic NS which then stimulates the adrenal medulla
- Adrenal glands secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream
- Organs and other physiological processes are activated to prepare the body for action
-
Part 2 (chronic)
- Hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland
- Pituitary gland releases hormones to stimulate adrenal glands
- Adrenal glands secrete cortisol to sustain the body’s high level of alertness
13
Q
Adaptive responses
A
- Contribute to the survival of an organism
- Automatic reaction to immediate threat (minimises harm)
- E.g. Prey can remain frozen to avoid detection by a predator (the frozen state also conserves energy, allowing the organism to use the saved energy to escape when the predator loses interest)
14
Q
Examples of when the fight or flight response is adaptive and not adaptive
A
- Adaptive – immediately running during a fire to enhance survival
- Not adaptive – absence from an important exam
15
Q
Physiological changes during fight or flight response
A
- Sympathetic NS is dominant
- Adrenal G secrete adrenaline, noradrenaline & cortisol
- Increased heart rate and blood pressure
- Blood from skin & intestines redistributed to skeletal M
- Increased glucose secretion by the liver for energy
- Dilation of the pupils allowing eyes to take in more light
- Increased breathing rate for more oxygen
- Bodily functions (e.g. digestion) suppressed to conserve energy
16
Q
Freeze response
A
- Remaining motionless due to no apparent chance of successfully fighting or escaping
- Parasympathetic dominance contributes to immobility
- Can occur before the body initiates a fight / flight response
- Can be adaptive / not adaptive
17
Q
Examples of when the freeze response is adaptive and not adaptive
A
- Adaptive – immobility to prevent detection by predator
- Not adaptive – freezing when sitting a job interview
NOTE: Details about ‘tonic immobility’ are not required and should not be considered synonymous with the ‘freeze’ response.
18
Q
Physiological changes during freeze response
A
- Immobility – tense muscles collapse and become still
- Hypervigilance – being on guard, watchful and alert
- Cessation of vocalisations
- Rapid drop in heart rate and blood pressure
- Orienting response of head / eyes toward the threat
- High arousal, alertness and tension (FAQs)
19
Q
Cortisol
A
- Considered to be the primary stress hormone
- Acts slower and has longer lasting effects compared to other stress hormones
- Helps keep the body at an elevated level of arousal, allowing the body to deal with stress for a prolonged period of time
20
Q
Cortisol’s role in chronic stress
A
- Increase/maintain high blood sugar level
- Enhance energy to keep the body in an elevated and energised state
- Suppression of immune system (can weaken it)
- Reduce inflammation by blocking the activity of white blood cells
- Suppress bodily systems not immediately required to deal with a stressor
21
Q
Healthy stress response (cortisol)
A
- Quick rise in cortisol levels followed by a rapid decline upon the termination of the stressful event
- Energises the body (↑ energy and enhances metabolism)
22
Q
Unhealthy stress response (cortisol)
A
- When continuously released, cortisol degrades the immune system which depletes the body’s resources making it vulnerable to illness and disease
- Cortisol ↑ appetite which is associated with weight gain
23
Q
The gut–brain axis (GBA)
A
- A bidirectional communication link between the central and enteric nervous system
- Includes the brain, spinal cord, ANS and HPA axis
- Functions independent of the CNS
24
Q
Bidirectional relationship of the gut and the brain
A
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Stress / anxiety
- Messages from the brain lead to an upset stomach/digestive dysfunction
- Can imbalance / disturb the gut microbiome
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Gut dysbiosis (imbalance in gut microbiota)
- Unhealthy gut leads to greater vulnerability to stress
- Can disturb production of mood-stabilising neurotransmitters (e.g. serotonin)
- Can create mood / motivational issues
NOTE: Conversely, good intestinal health can improve cognitive and emotional functioning of the brain.
25
Q
The gut (microbiome)
‘Second brain’
A
- Communicates w brain to influence the body’s health
- Unique and affected by internal and external factors
- Contains microbiota (bacteria, fungi, viruses, biotics)
- These factors include diet, disease, lifestyle and nutrition
- Diversity of the gut microbiota decreases with age
- Known to produce & release NTS (e.g. GABA, serotonin, dop)
26
Q
Enterotype
A
- Refers to the unique combination of the gut microbiota we each possess
27
Q
Healthy gut
A
- Large microbiota population with high diversity
- Resistant to disturbances (e.g. antibiotics, poor diet)
28
Q
Gut dysbiosis / unbalanced gut microbiome
A
- Unbalanced number or type of microbiota
- Associated w changes in NT production and activity in NS
- Associated w digestive disorders (e.g. IBS), inflammatory diseases, infections and poor cognitive function
29
Q
Improving gut health
A
- Consuming probiotics (”good” bacteria) via supplements, pickles, kimchi, yogurt
- Healthy faecal microbiotal transplants
NOTE: Improving gut health is beneficial in managing gut relates issues such as stress.
30
Q
Explanatory power
A
- The ability to explain concepts effectively
- A theory / model with high explanatory power:
- Explains or accounts for more observations
- Makes fewer assumptions
- Is more falsifiable (open to criticism / further testing)
- Provides more details of cause-and-effect relationship
31
Q
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
A
- Biological model of stress developed by Hans Seyle
- A three-stage physiological response to stress involving alarm (shock/countershock), resistance and exhaustion
- Non-specific (occurs regardless of the type of stressor)
- Suggests a pattern to all experiences of stress, including eustress and distress
- Identical within all members of the same species, in this case rats
TIP: SCARE = shock, countershock, alarm, resistance and exhaustion.
32
Q
Stage 1: Alarm reaction
(GAS)
A
- Comprised of two sub-stages: shock and counter shock
-
Shock – temporary state of shock where the body’s ability to cope w stressor briefly falls below normal
- Drop in body temperature, blood pressure, muscle tone and loss of fluid in body tissues
- Can involve fainting / heart attack
- Occurs upon initial exposure to the stressor
-
Counter shock – rebound reaction where the body’s ability to cope w stressor increases
- Sympathetic NS activated (initiates FF response)
- Adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol and other stress hormones released into the blood stream
- ↑ heart and breathing rate, arousal and energy (glucose and oxygen) supplied to muscles
33
Q
Stage 2: Resistance
(GAS)
A
- Body’s resistance to the stressor rises above normal
- Cortisol continues to be released (further energises body & helps repair any damages that may have occurred)
- Reduced resistance to illness / disease due to cortisol weakening the immune system
- Physiological arousal remains above normal but intense arousal from stage 1 diminishes
- Unnecessary processes are supressed to maximise resources to cope with the stressor (digestion, sex drive, menstruation, production of sperm)
- Person can still feel well and able to perform daily taks
- If the stressor is successfully dealt with in this stage, the body returns to its homeostatic state
- Cortisol has immunosuppressive effects (can become ill)
34
Q
Stage 3: Exhaustion
(GAS)
A
- Body can no longer maintain resistance if the stressor is not successfully dealt with in the resistance stage
- Resources are depleted, leaving the body weak and vulnerable to physical and mental disorders
- Evidenced by fatigue, sleep disturbances, severe concentration loss, irritability and a depressed mood
35
Q
Strengths of the GAS
A
- Explains the immediate and long-term effects of stress with reference to research
- Established links between chronic stress & disease (e.g. prolonged stress can ↑ likelihood of illness)
- Identifies biological processes associated with the body’s stress response (e.g. roles of endocrine system)
- Highlights the predictable pattern of chronic stress which can be easily tested in a lab
- Results also showed that prolonged stress can lead to death in lab rats
36
Q
Limitations of the GAS
A
- Does not consider individual response differences (diff people have diff responses to same stressor)
- Based on animal research and may therefore be of limited relevance to human stress response (rats have a simpler NS and therefore a less varied stress response)
- Does not consider environmental factors (e.g. social support) that can exacerbate / mitigate stress
- Temporal validity (does not consider new information)
NOTE: Specifically apply limitation to question.
37
Q
Psychological stress influences
A
- What the event means to an individual
- Individual judgment of their ability to cope
- Prior experiences
- Personality/attitude
- Optimism/pessimism
- Motivations and goals
- General life oulook
NOTE: Lazarus and Folkman identified the first two points as the main factors that determine the extent to which an event is experienced as stressful.
38
Q
Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (TMS)
A
- Psychological model of stress by Lazarus and Folkman
- Suggests that stress is highly subjective and is a product of an individual’s appraisal of a stressor
-
Stress = encounter (‘transaction’) + stress response
- Encounter – between a person & their environment
- Stress response – based on the person’s evaluation of the stressor and their ability to cope with it
39
Q
Primary appraisal
A
-
Evaluation of the situation’s importance
- Does it matter? Is it important?
- Results in a decision about whether the event is:
- Irrelevant – does not matter/apply to me
- Benign-positive – neutral/not stressful
- Stressful – harmful, threatening or challenging
40
Q
Types of stress appraisals in primary appraisal
A
-
Harm – how much damage has already occurred
- E.g. ‘I have lost my job’
-
Threat – harm that has not occurred but could occur in the future
- E.g. ‘I might not be able to afford the rent’
-
Challenge – potential for personal gain or growth from the situation (most positive form of stress)
- E.g. ‘I’ll find another job and learn to budget my money’
41
Q
Secondary appraisal
A
- Involves the evaluation of available mechanisms and resources to cope with a situation
- Adequate coping resources = little / no stress
- Inadequate resources = stress
- Coping options can be:
- Internal – strength and determination
- External – support from family or friends
42
Q
Strengths and limitations of the TMS
A
-
Strengths
- Emphasises subjective nature of stress response
- Explains why people respond to stressors differently
- Developed with reference to observations of people
-
Limitations
- 1 & 2 appraisal can interact & occur simultaneously
- Difficult to test through experimental research due to variability of individual stress responses
- Stress can be experienced without thinking about the situation (appraisal is not essential)
43
Q
Role of appraisal in the TMS
A
- Whether a person experiences stress depends upon the individual’s evaluation of the particular event
- Situation only leads to stress if it is interpreted as –ve
44
Q
Coping
A
- Attempting to manage stressor in some effective way
- Involves cognitive & behavioural efforts to manage stressors that are appraised as exceeding one’s resources
45
Q
Coping strategies
A
- Methods used to manage stress due to stressor
- May involve an action(s) or a thought process
- Divided into approach and avoidance coping
46
Q
Context-specific effectiveness
In relation to coping strategies
A
- When a coping strategy matches or is a ‘good fit’ to the stressful situation
- E.g. an effective coping stategy when stressed about an exam would be planning and studying, whereas ‘wishful thinking,’ whilst engaging in minimal study is likely to be detrimental
47
Q
Factors that influence the effectiveness of a coping strategy
A
- Personality, knowledge, skills, interests and preferences
- Access to social support from family, friends or community
48
Q
Coping flexibility
A
- Ability to effectively modify a coping strategy according to the specific demands of the stressor
- Selecting a coping strategy that suits the specific situation
- Recognising when a coping strategy is ineffective
- Discontinuing 👎🏻 coping strats / implementing alternatives
49
Q
Individual coping flexibility
A
- Individuals with high coping flexibility:
- More likely to adequately cope w positive outcomes
- Able to adjust a coping strategy if found ineffective
- Good fit between strategy and situation’s demands
- Individuals with low coping flexibility:
- Not very adaptable (less likely to adequately cope)
- Rely on same coping strategies, even if ineffective
- Use same strategies across diff stressful situations
50
Q
Relationship between coping flexibility and context-specific effectiveness of coping
A
- ↑ cop flex +vely influences context-specific effectiveness
- Makes achieving context-specific effectiveness more likely (can adapt their coping strat to meet demands of stressor)
51
Q
Approach and avoidance coping
A
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Approach – coping with stress by directly confronting and dealing with the stressor and its effects
- Creating a solution that minimises / eliminates issue
- E.g. seeking advice, apologising, taking responsibility
-
Avoidant – evading and indirectly dealing with the stressor and its effects
- No attempt to actively confront stressor & its causes
- Ineffective in the long-term
- E.g. denial, distancing, procrastination
52
Q
Advantages and disadvantages of approach strategies
A
-
Advantages
- Direct management is beneficial in the long-term
- Generally considered more adaptive and effective
-
Disadvantages
- Requires more energy and focus, which may cause the individual to neglect other aspects of their life
- Not suitable for every situation (e.g. when nothing practical can be done about the stressor)
53
Q
When avoidance coping can be effective
A
-
If the stressor is beyond one’s control and nothing practical can be done to address it
- Avoiding unnecessary exposure to the stressor can prevent unnecessary distress
- E.g. ignoring or avoiding a pessimistic co-worker
-
Dealing with stress in the short term
- More when coupled w / followed by approach cop
- E.g. firstly distancing (avoidance) during an argument to calm intense emotions, then returning to situation to effectively communicate (approach)
54
Q
Exercise as a coping strategy
A
- Uses up cortisol, helping the body return to homeostasis
- Releases endorphins which reduces negative emotions
- Reduces muscle tension from fight / flight
- Focus on breathing / repetitive movement (calming effect)
NOTE: Exercise is commonly an avoidant strategy. It can be an approach strategy IF the source of stress is the need to improve physical fitness (e.g. a low fitness level resulting in poor self-esteem and stress).
