Chapter 3: Stress

Question 1

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Stress

Answer 1

• A physiological and psychological response produced by internal or external stressors
• One is considered to be in a state of stress when they experiences intense (acute) / prolonged (chronic) arousal

NOTE: Arousal refers to an individual’s state of alertness.

Question 2

Eustress vs distress

Answer 2

• Eustress – positive psychological state
  
  • Can result in motivation, determination, excitedness
  • Improves focus, perfomance and memory
  • ↑ physiological arousal due to +ve resp to stressor
• Distress – negative psychological state
  
  • Can result in anxiety and frustration
  • Impairs focus, performance and memory
  • Decreases energy over an extended period of time

Question 3

Stressor

Answer 3

• Any stimulus that produces stress
• Highly subjective

Question 4

Internal and external stressors

Answer 4

• Internal – originate within the individual
  
  • Personal perception of events/biological responses
  • E.g. attitude, low self-esteem, ilness, sleep deprivation, NS dysfunction
• External – originate outside the individual
  
  • Stimulation from interaction with the environment
  • E.g. exams, finance, long working hours, alcohol

Question 5

Psychological stress responses

Answer 5

• Behavioural – changes in eating and sleeping habits
• Emotional – irritability and aggression
• Cognitive – ↓ concentration and impaired memory
• Involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

Question 6

Physiological vs psychological stress responses

Answer 6

• Physiological – body
  
  • E.g. heart palpitations, dizziness, fevers
• Psychological – behaviour, emotion, cognitions
  
  • E.g. mood swings, changes in sleep

Question 7

Acute stress

Answer 7

• Lasts for a relatively short time
• Governed by the hormone adrenaline
• Benefits – adrenaline release can enhance problem-solving abilities or physical performance
• Risks – elevated blood pressure or reduced motivation to persist with a task
• E.g. exams, starting a new job, deadlines

Question 8

Chronic stress

Answer 8

• Continues for a prolonged period of time
• Governed by the hormone cortisol
• Stressor doesn’t need to remain physically present to have its effects (recollections of the stressor can sustain chronic stress)
• Associated with long-lasting pressures and worries
• E.g. grief, long-term unemployment, social isolation

Question 9

Stress hormones

Answer 9

• Adrenaline and noradrenaline
  
  • Aka epinephrine and norephinephrine
  • Circulate the blood to activate organs (e.g. lungs)
  • ↑ physiological processes to prepare body for action
• Cortisol is the most abundant of these hormones
  
  • Energises the body by ↑ energy supply and enhancing metabolism in the long term
  • Acts slower and has prolonged effects
  • Prepares the body for action and maintains its high levels of alertness

Question 10

Fight-or-flight-or-freeze response

Answer 10

• Involuntary response to a stressful situation in readiness for:
  
  • Confronting the threat (fight)
  • Running away to safety (flight)
  • Staying still and silent to avoid detection (freeze)
• The body is quickly energised to react to a threat/emergency
• Occur automatically but can be conditioned/learnt
• Enable us to deal with threats to help minimise harm

Question 11

Fight or flight response

Answer 11

• Initiated by the sympathetic NS and stress hormones
• Energy from non-essential body systems directed to those that facilitate a fight or flight response
• Can be adaptive or not adaptive
• Involves a two-step process
• Both the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS are activated when considering as an initial unitary response

Question 12

Two components of the fight or flight response

Answer 12

• Part 1 (acute)
  
  • Amygdala detects the threat and sends a signal to the hypothalamus
  • Hypothalamus activates the sympathetic NS which then stimulates the adrenal medulla
  • Adrenal glands secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream
  • Organs and other physiological processes are activated to prepare the body for action
• Part 2 (chronic)
  
  • Hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland
  • Pituitary gland releases hormones to stimulate adrenal glands
  • Adrenal glands secrete cortisol to sustain the body’s high level of alertness

Question 13

Adaptive responses

Answer 13

• Contribute to the survival of an organism
• Automatic reaction to immediate threat (minimises harm)
• E.g. Prey can remain frozen to avoid detection by a predator (the frozen state also conserves energy, allowing the organism to use the saved energy to escape when the predator loses interest)

Question 14

Examples of when the fight or flight response is adaptive and not adaptive

Answer 14

• Adaptive – immediately running during a fire to enhance survival
• Not adaptive – absence from an important exam

Question 15

Physiological changes during fight or flight response

Answer 15

• Sympathetic NS is dominant
• Adrenal G secrete adrenaline, noradrenaline & cortisol
• Increased heart rate and blood pressure
• Blood from skin & intestines redistributed to skeletal M
• Increased glucose secretion by the liver for energy
• Dilation of the pupils allowing eyes to take in more light
• Increased breathing rate for more oxygen
• Bodily functions (e.g. digestion) suppressed to conserve energy

Question 16

Freeze response

Answer 16

• Remaining motionless due to no apparent chance of successfully fighting or escaping
• Parasympathetic dominance contributes to immobility
• Can occur before the body initiates a fight / flight response
• Can be adaptive / not adaptive

Question 17

Examples of when the freeze response is adaptive and not adaptive

Answer 17

• Adaptive – immobility to prevent detection by predator
• Not adaptive – freezing when sitting a job interview

NOTE: Details about ‘tonic immobility’ are not required and should not be considered synonymous with the ‘freeze’ response.

Question 18

Physiological changes during freeze response

Answer 18

• Immobility – tense muscles collapse and become still
• Hypervigilance – being on guard, watchful and alert
• Cessation of vocalisations
• Rapid drop in heart rate and blood pressure
• Orienting response of head / eyes toward the threat
• High arousal, alertness and tension (FAQs)

Question 19

Cortisol

Answer 19

• Considered to be the primary stress hormone
• Acts slower and has longer lasting effects compared to other stress hormones
• Helps keep the body at an elevated level of arousal, allowing the body to deal with stress for a prolonged period of time

Question 20

Cortisol’s role in chronic stress

Answer 20

• Increase/maintain high blood sugar level
• Enhance energy to keep the body in an elevated and energised state
• Suppression of immune system (can weaken it)
• Reduce inflammation by blocking the activity of white blood cells
• Suppress bodily systems not immediately required to deal with a stressor

Question 21

Healthy stress response (cortisol)

Answer 21

• Quick rise in cortisol levels followed by a rapid decline upon the termination of the stressful event
• Energises the body (↑ energy and enhances metabolism)

Question 22

Unhealthy stress response (cortisol)

Answer 22

• When continuously released, cortisol degrades the immune system which depletes the body’s resources making it vulnerable to illness and disease
• Cortisol ↑ appetite which is associated with weight gain

Question 23

The gut–brain axis (GBA)

Answer 23

• A bidirectional communication link between the central and enteric nervous system
• Includes the brain, spinal cord, ANS and HPA axis
• Functions independent of the CNS

Question 24

Bidirectional relationship of the gut and the brain

Answer 24

• Stress / anxiety
  
  • Messages from the brain lead to an upset stomach/digestive dysfunction
  • Can imbalance / disturb the gut microbiome
• Gut dysbiosis (imbalance in gut microbiota)
  
  • Unhealthy gut leads to greater vulnerability to stress
  • Can disturb production of mood-stabilising neurotransmitters (e.g. serotonin)
  • Can create mood / motivational issues

NOTE: Conversely, good intestinal health can improve cognitive and emotional functioning of the brain.

Question 25

The gut (microbiome)

‘Second brain’

Answer 25

• Communicates w brain to influence the body’s health
• Unique and affected by internal and external factors
• Contains microbiota (bacteria, fungi, viruses, biotics)
• These factors include diet, disease, lifestyle and nutrition
• Diversity of the gut microbiota decreases with age
• Known to produce & release NTS (e.g. GABA, serotonin, dop)

Question 26

Enterotype

Answer 26

• Refers to the unique combination of the gut microbiota we each possess

Question 27

Healthy gut

Answer 27

• Large microbiota population with high diversity
• Resistant to disturbances (e.g. antibiotics, poor diet)

Question 28

Gut dysbiosis / unbalanced gut microbiome

Answer 28

• Unbalanced number or type of microbiota
• Associated w changes in NT production and activity in NS
• Associated w digestive disorders (e.g. IBS), inflammatory diseases, infections and poor cognitive function

Question 29

Improving gut health

Answer 29

• Consuming probiotics (”good” bacteria) via supplements, pickles, kimchi, yogurt
• Healthy faecal microbiotal transplants

NOTE: Improving gut health is beneficial in managing gut relates issues such as stress.

Question 30

Explanatory power

Answer 30

• The ability to explain concepts effectively
• A theory / model with high explanatory power:
  
  • Explains or accounts for more observations
  • Makes fewer assumptions
  • Is more falsifiable (open to criticism / further testing)
  • Provides more details of cause-and-effect relationship

Question 31

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Answer 31

• Biological model of stress developed by Hans Seyle
• A three-stage physiological response to stress involving alarm (shock/countershock), resistance and exhaustion
• Non-specific (occurs regardless of the type of stressor)
• Suggests a pattern to all experiences of stress, including eustress and distress
• Identical within all members of the same species, in this case rats

TIP: SCARE = shock, countershock, alarm, resistance and exhaustion.

Question 32

Stage 1: Alarm reaction

(GAS)

Answer 32

• Comprised of two sub-stages: shock and counter shock
• Shock – temporary state of shock where the body’s ability to cope w stressor briefly falls below normal
  
  • Drop in body temperature, blood pressure, muscle tone and loss of fluid in body tissues
  • Can involve fainting / heart attack
  • Occurs upon initial exposure to the stressor
• Counter shock – rebound reaction where the body’s ability to cope w stressor increases
  
  • Sympathetic NS activated (initiates FF response)
  • Adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol and other stress hormones released into the blood stream
  • ↑ heart and breathing rate, arousal and energy (glucose and oxygen) supplied to muscles

Question 33

Stage 2: Resistance

(GAS)

Answer 33

• Body’s resistance to the stressor rises above normal
• Cortisol continues to be released (further energises body & helps repair any damages that may have occurred)
• Reduced resistance to illness / disease due to cortisol weakening the immune system
• Physiological arousal remains above normal but intense arousal from stage 1 diminishes
• Unnecessary processes are supressed to maximise resources to cope with the stressor (digestion, sex drive, menstruation, production of sperm)
• Person can still feel well and able to perform daily taks
• If the stressor is successfully dealt with in this stage, the body returns to its homeostatic state
• Cortisol has immunosuppressive effects (can become ill)

Question 34

Stage 3: Exhaustion

(GAS)

Answer 34

• Body can no longer maintain resistance if the stressor is not successfully dealt with in the resistance stage
• Resources are depleted, leaving the body weak and vulnerable to physical and mental disorders
• Evidenced by fatigue, sleep disturbances, severe concentration loss, irritability and a depressed mood

Question 35

Strengths of the GAS

Answer 35

• Explains the immediate and long-term effects of stress with reference to research
• Established links between chronic stress & disease (e.g. prolonged stress can ↑ likelihood of illness)
• Identifies biological processes associated with the body’s stress response (e.g. roles of endocrine system)
• Highlights the predictable pattern of chronic stress which can be easily tested in a lab
• Results also showed that prolonged stress can lead to death in lab rats

Question 36

Limitations of the GAS

Answer 36

• Does not consider individual response differences (diff people have diff responses to same stressor)
• Based on animal research and may therefore be of limited relevance to human stress response (rats have a simpler NS and therefore a less varied stress response)
• Does not consider environmental factors (e.g. social support) that can exacerbate / mitigate stress
• Temporal validity (does not consider new information)

NOTE: Specifically apply limitation to question.

Question 37

Psychological stress influences

Answer 37

• What the event means to an individual
• Individual judgment of their ability to cope
• Prior experiences
• Personality/attitude
• Optimism/pessimism
• Motivations and goals
• General life oulook

NOTE: Lazarus and Folkman identified the first two points as the main factors that determine the extent to which an event is experienced as stressful.

Question 38

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (TMS)

Answer 38

• Psychological model of stress by Lazarus and Folkman
• Suggests that stress is highly subjective and is a product of an individual’s appraisal of a stressor
• Stress = encounter (‘transaction’) + stress response
  
  • Encounter – between a person & their environment
  • Stress response – based on the person’s evaluation of the stressor and their ability to cope with it

Question 39

Primary appraisal

Answer 39

• Evaluation of the situation’s importance
  
  • Does it matter? Is it important?
• Results in a decision about whether the event is:
  
  • Irrelevant – does not matter/apply to me
  • Benign-positive – neutral/not stressful
  • Stressful – harmful, threatening or challenging

Question 40

Types of stress appraisals in primary appraisal

Answer 40

• Harm – how much damage has already occurred
  
  • E.g. ‘I have lost my job’
• Threat – harm that has not occurred but could occur in the future
  
  • E.g. ‘I might not be able to afford the rent’
• Challenge – potential for personal gain or growth from the situation (most positive form of stress)
  
  • E.g. ‘I’ll find another job and learn to budget my money’

Question 41

Secondary appraisal

Answer 41

• Involves the evaluation of available mechanisms and resources to cope with a situation
• Adequate coping resources = little / no stress
• Inadequate resources = stress
• Coping options can be:
  
  • Internal – strength and determination
  • External – support from family or friends

Question 42

Strengths and limitations of the TMS

Answer 42

• Strengths
  
  • Emphasises subjective nature of stress response
  • Explains why people respond to stressors differently
  • Developed with reference to observations of people
• Limitations
  
  • 1 & 2 appraisal can interact & occur simultaneously
  • Difficult to test through experimental research due to variability of individual stress responses
  • Stress can be experienced without thinking about the situation (appraisal is not essential)

Question 43

Role of appraisal in the TMS

Answer 43

• Whether a person experiences stress depends upon the individual’s evaluation of the particular event
• Situation only leads to stress if it is interpreted as –ve

Question 44

Coping

Answer 44

• Attempting to manage stressor in some effective way
• Involves cognitive & behavioural efforts to manage stressors that are appraised as exceeding one’s resources

Question 45

Coping strategies

Answer 45

• Methods used to manage stress due to stressor
• May involve an action(s) or a thought process
• Divided into approach and avoidance coping

Question 46

Context-specific effectiveness

In relation to coping strategies

Answer 46

• When a coping strategy matches or is a ‘good fit’ to the stressful situation
• E.g. an effective coping stategy when stressed about an exam would be planning and studying, whereas ‘wishful thinking,’ whilst engaging in minimal study is likely to be detrimental

Question 47

Factors that influence the effectiveness of a coping strategy

Answer 47

• Personality, knowledge, skills, interests and preferences
• Access to social support from family, friends or community

Question 48

Coping flexibility

Answer 48

• Ability to effectively modify a coping strategy according to the specific demands of the stressor
• Selecting a coping strategy that suits the specific situation
• Recognising when a coping strategy is ineffective
• Discontinuing 👎🏻 coping strats / implementing alternatives

Question 49

Individual coping flexibility

Answer 49

• Individuals with high coping flexibility:
  
  • More likely to adequately cope w positive outcomes
  • Able to adjust a coping strategy if found ineffective
  • Good fit between strategy and situation’s demands
• Individuals with low coping flexibility:
  
  • Not very adaptable (less likely to adequately cope)
  • Rely on same coping strategies, even if ineffective
  • Use same strategies across diff stressful situations

Question 50

Relationship between coping flexibility and context-specific effectiveness of coping

Answer 50

• ↑ cop flex +vely influences context-specific effectiveness
• Makes achieving context-specific effectiveness more likely (can adapt their coping strat to meet demands of stressor)

Question 51

Approach and avoidance coping

Answer 51

• Approach – coping with stress by directly confronting and dealing with the stressor and its effects
  
  • Creating a solution that minimises / eliminates issue
  • E.g. seeking advice, apologising, taking responsibility
• Avoidant – evading and indirectly dealing with the stressor and its effects
  
  • No attempt to actively confront stressor & its causes
  • Ineffective in the long-term
  • E.g. denial, distancing, procrastination

Question 52

Advantages and disadvantages of approach strategies

Answer 52

• Advantages
  
  • Direct management is beneficial in the long-term
  • Generally considered more adaptive and effective
• Disadvantages
  
  • Requires more energy and focus, which may cause the individual to neglect other aspects of their life
  • Not suitable for every situation (e.g. when nothing practical can be done about the stressor)

Question 53

When avoidance coping can be effective

Answer 53

• If the stressor is beyond one’s control and nothing practical can be done to address it
  
  • Avoiding unnecessary exposure to the stressor can prevent unnecessary distress
  • E.g. ignoring or avoiding a pessimistic co-worker
• Dealing with stress in the short term
  
  • More when coupled w / followed by approach cop
  • E.g. firstly distancing (avoidance) during an argument to calm intense emotions, then returning to situation to effectively communicate (approach)

Question 54

Exercise as a coping strategy

Answer 54

• Uses up cortisol, helping the body return to homeostasis
• Releases endorphins which reduces negative emotions
• Reduces muscle tension from fight / flight
• Focus on breathing / repetitive movement (calming effect)

NOTE: Exercise is commonly an avoidant strategy. It can be an approach strategy IF the source of stress is the need to improve physical fitness (e.g. a low fitness level resulting in poor self-esteem and stress).