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Psychology U3/4 > Chapter 3: Stress > Flashcards

Chapter 3: Stress Flashcards

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1
Q

gl

Stress

A
  • A physiological and psychological response produced by internal or external stressors
  • One is considered to be in a state of stress when they experiences intense (acute) / prolonged (chronic) arousal

NOTE: Arousal refers to an individual’s state of alertness.

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2
Q

Eustress vs distress

A
  • Eustress – positive psychological state
    • Can result in motivation, determination, excitedness
    • Improves focus, perfomance and memory
    • ↑ physiological arousal due to +ve resp to stressor
  • Distress – negative psychological state
    • Can result in anxiety and frustration
    • Impairs focus, performance and memory
    • Decreases energy over an extended period of time
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3
Q

Stressor

A
  • Any stimulus that produces stress
  • Highly subjective
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4
Q

Internal and external stressors

A
  • Internal – originate within the individual
    • Personal perception of events/biological responses
    • E.g. attitude, low self-esteem, ilness, sleep deprivation, NS dysfunction
  • External – originate outside the individual
    • Stimulation from interaction with the environment
    • E.g. exams, finance, long working hours, alcohol
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5
Q

Psychological stress responses

A
  • Behavioural – changes in eating and sleeping habits
  • Emotional – irritability and aggression
  • Cognitive – ↓ concentration and impaired memory
  • Involves the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
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6
Q

Physiological vs psychological stress responses

A
  • Physiological – body
    • E.g. heart palpitations, dizziness, fevers
  • Psychological – behaviour, emotion, cognitions
    • E.g. mood swings, changes in sleep
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7
Q

Acute stress

A
  • Lasts for a relatively short time
  • Governed by the hormone adrenaline
  • Benefits – adrenaline release can enhance problem-solving abilities or physical performance
  • Risks – elevated blood pressure or reduced motivation to persist with a task
  • E.g. exams, starting a new job, deadlines
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8
Q

Chronic stress

A
  • Continues for a prolonged period of time
  • Governed by the hormone cortisol
  • Stressor doesn’t need to remain physically present to have its effects (recollections of the stressor can sustain chronic stress)
  • Associated with long-lasting pressures and worries
  • E.g. grief, long-term unemployment, social isolation
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9
Q

Stress hormones

A
  • Adrenaline and noradrenaline
    • Aka epinephrine and norephinephrine
    • Circulate the blood to activate organs (e.g. lungs)
    • ↑ physiological processes to prepare body for action
  • Cortisol is the most abundant of these hormones
    • Energises the body by ↑ energy supply and enhancing metabolism in the long term
    • Acts slower and has prolonged effects
    • Prepares the body for action and maintains its high levels of alertness
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10
Q

Fight-or-flight-or-freeze response

A
  • Involuntary response to a stressful situation in readiness for:
    • Confronting the threat (fight)
    • Running away to safety (flight)
    • Staying still and silent to avoid detection (freeze)
  • The body is quickly energised to react to a threat/emergency
  • Occur automatically but can be conditioned/learnt
  • Enable us to deal with threats to help minimise harm
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11
Q

Fight or flight response

A
  • Initiated by the sympathetic NS and stress hormones
  • Energy from non-essential body systems directed to those that facilitate a fight or flight response
  • Can be adaptive or not adaptive
  • Involves a two-step process
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12
Q

Two components of the fight or flight response

A
  • Part 1 (acute)
    • Amygdala detects the threat and sends a signal to the hypothalamus
    • Hypothalamus activates the sympathetic NS which then stimulates the adrenal medulla
    • Adrenal glands secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream
    • Organs and other physiological processes are activated to prepare the body for action
  • Part 2 (chronic)
    • Hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland
    • Pituitary gland releases hormones to stimulate adrenal glands
    • Adrenal glands secrete cortisol to sustain the body’s high level of alertness
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13
Q

Adaptive responses

A
  • Contribute to the survival of an organism
  • Automatic reaction to immediate threat (minimises harm)
  • E.g. Prey can remain frozen to avoid detection by a predator (the frozen state also conserves energy, allowing the organism to use the saved energy to escape when the predator loses interest)
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14
Q

Examples of when the fight or flight response is adaptive and not adaptive

A
  • Adaptive – immediately running during a fire to enhance survival
  • Not adaptive – absence from an important exam
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15
Q

Physiological changes during fight or flight response

A
  • Sympathetic activated, parasympathetic suppressed
  • Adrenal G secrete adrenaline, noradrenaline & cortisol
  • Increased heart rate and blood pressure
  • Blood from skin & intestines redistributed to skeletal M
  • Increased glucose secretion by the liver for energy
  • Dilation of the pupils allowing eyes to take in more light
  • Increased breathing rate for more oxygen
  • Bodily functions (e.g. digestion) suppressed to conserve energy
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16
Q

Freeze response

A
  • Remaining motionless due to no apparent chance of successfully fighting or escaping
  • Parasympathetic dominance contributes to immobility
  • Can occur before the body initiates a fight / flight response
  • Can be adaptive / not adaptive
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17
Q

Examples of when the freeze response is adaptive and not adaptive

A
  • Adaptive – immobility to prevent detection by predator
  • Not adaptive – freezing when sitting a job interview

NOTE: Details about ‘tonic immobility’ are not required and should not be considered synonymous with the ‘freeze’ response.

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18
Q

Physiological changes during freeze response

A
  • Immobility – tense muscles collapse and become still
  • Hypervigilance – being on guard, watchful and alert
  • Cessation of vocalisations
  • Rapid drop in heart rate and blood pressure
  • Orienting response of head / eyes toward the threat
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19
Q

Cortisol

A
  • Considered to be the primary stress hormone
  • Acts slower and has longer lasting effects compared to other stress hormones
  • Helps keep the body at an elevated level of arousal, allowing the body to deal with stress for a prolonged period of time
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20
Q

Cortisol’s role in chronic stress

A
  • Increase/maintain high blood sugar level
  • Enhance energy to keep the body in an elevated and energised state
  • Suppression of immune system (can weaken it)
  • Reduce inflammation by blocking the activity of white blood cells
  • Suppress bodily systems not immediately required to deal with a stressor
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21
Q

Healthy stress response (cortisol)

A
  • Quick rise in cortisol levels followed by a rapid decline upon the termination of the stressful event
  • Energises the body (↑ energy and enhances metabolism)
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22
Q

Unhealthy stress response (cortisol)

A
  • When continuously released, cortisol degrades the immune system which depletes the body’s resources making it vulnerable to illness and disease
  • Cortisol ↑ appetite which is associated with weight gain
23
Q

The gut–brain axis (GBA)

A
  • A bidirectional communication link between the central and enteric nervous system
  • Includes the brain, spinal cord, ANS and HPA axis
  • Functions independent of the CNS
24
Q

Bidirectional relationship of the gut and the brain

A
  • Stress / anxiety
    • Messages from the brain lead to an upset stomach/digestive dysfunction
    • Can imbalance / disturb the gut microbiome
  • Gut dysbiosis (imbalance in gut microbiota)
    • Unhealthy gut leads to greater vulnerability to stress
    • Can disturb production of mood-stabilising neurotransmitters (e.g. serotonin)
    • Can create mood / motivational issues

NOTE: Conversely, good intestinal health can improve cognitive and emotional functioning of the brain.

25
Q

The gut (microbiome)

‘Second brain’

A
  • Communicates w brain to influence the body’s health
  • Contains microbiota (bacteria, fungi, viruses, biotics)
  • Microbiome (microbiota population) is unique and affected by internal and external factors
  • These factors include diet, disease, lifestyle and nutrition
  • Diversity of the gut microbiota decreases with age
26
Q

Enterotype

A
  • Refers to the unique combination of the gut microbiota we each possess
27
Q

Healthy gut

A
  • Large microbiota population with high diversity
  • Resistant to disturbances (e.g. antibiotics, poor diet)
28
Q

Gut dysbiosis / unbalanced gut microbiome

A
  • Unbalanced number or type of microbiota
  • Associated w changes in NT production and activity in NS
  • Associated w digestive disorders (e.g. IBS), inflammatory diseases, infections and poor cognitive function
29
Q

Improving gut health

A
  • Consuming probiotics (”good” bacteria) via supplements, pickles, kimchi, yogurt
  • Healthy faecal microbiotal transplants

NOTE: Improving gut health is beneficial in managing gut relates issues such as stress.

30
Q

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

A
  • Biological model of stress developed by Hans Seyle
  • A three-stage physiological response to stress involving alarm (shock/countershock), resistance and exhaustion
  • Non-specific (occurs regardless of the type of stressor)
  • Suggests a pattern to all experiences of stress, including eustress and distress
  • Identical within all members of the same species, in this case rats

TIP: SCARE = shock, countershock, alarm, resistance and exhaustion.

31
Q

Stage 1: Alarm reaction

(GAS)

A
  • Comprised of two sub-stages: shock and counter shock
  • Shock – temporary state of shock where the body’s ability to cope w stressor briefly falls below normal
    • Drop in body temperature, blood pressure, muscle tone and loss of fluid in body tissues
    • Can involve fainting / heart attack
    • Occurs upon initial exposure to the stressor
  • Counter shock – rebound reaction where the body’s ability to cope w stressor increases
    • Sympathetic NS activated (initiates FF response)
    • Adrenaline, noradrenaline, cortisol and other stress hormones released into the blood stream
    • ↑ heart and breathing rate, arousal and energy (glucose and oxygen) supplied to muscles
32
Q

Stage 2: Resistance

(GAS)

A
  • Body’s resistance to the stressor rises above normal
  • Cortisol continues to be released (further energises body & helps repair any damages that may have occurred)
  • Reduced resistance to illness / disease due to cortisol weakening the immune system
  • Physiological arousal remains above normal but intense arousal from stage 1 diminishes
  • Unnecessary processes are supressed to maximise resources to cope with the stressor (digestion, sex drive, menstruation, production of sperm)
  • Person can still feel well and able to perform daily taks
  • If the stressor is successfully dealt with in this stage, the body returns to its homeostatic state
  • Cortisol has immunosuppressive effects (can become ill)
33
Q

Stage 3: Exhaustion

(GAS)

A
  • Body can no longer maintain resistance if the stressor is not successfully dealt with in the resistance stage
  • Resources are depleted, leaving the body weak and vulnerable to physical and mental disorders
  • Evidenced by fatigue, sleep disturbances, severe concentration loss, irritability and a depressed mood
34
Q

Strengths of the GAS

A
  • Explains the immediate and long-term effects of stress with reference to research
  • Established links between chronic stress & disease (e.g. prolonged stress can ↑ likelihood of illness)
  • Identifies biological processes associated with the body’s stress response (e.g. roles of endocrine system)
  • Highlights the predictable pattern of chronic stress which can be easily tested in a lab
  • Results also showed that prolonged stress can lead to death in lab rats
35
Q

Limitations of the GAS

A
  • Does not consider individual response differences (diff people have diff responses to same stressor)
  • Based on animal research and may therefore be of limited relevance to human stress response (rats have a simpler NS and therefore a less varied stress response)
  • Does not consider environmental factors (e.g. social support) that can exacerbate / mitigate stress
  • Temporal validity (does not consider new information)

NOTE: Specifically apply limitation to question.

36
Q

Psychological stress influences

A
  • What the event means to an individual
  • Individual judgment of their ability to cope
  • Prior experiences
  • Personality/attitude
  • Optimism/pessimism
  • Motivations and goals
  • General life oulook

NOTE: Lazarus and Folkman identified the first two points as the main factors that determine the extent to which an event is experienced as stressful.

37
Q

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (TMS)

A
  • Psychological model of stress by Lazarus and Folkman
  • Suggests that stress is highly subjective and is a product of an individual’s appraisal of a stressor
  • Stress = encounter (‘transaction’) + stress response
    • Encounter – between a person & their environment
    • Stress response – based on the person’s evaluation of the stressor and their ability to cope with it
38
Q

Primary appraisal

A
  • Evaluation of the situation’s importance
    • Does it matter? Is it important?
  • Results in a decision about whether the event is:
    • Irrelevant – does not matter/apply to me
    • Benign-positive – neutral/not stressful
    • Stressful – harmful, threatening or challenging
39
Q

Types of stress appraisals in primary appraisal

A
  • Harm – how much damage has already occurred
    • E.g. ‘I have lost my job’
  • Threat – harm that has not occurred but could occur in the future
    • E.g. ‘I might not be able to afford the rent’
  • Challenge – potential for personal gain or growth from the situation (most positive form of stress)
    • E.g. ‘I’ll find another job and learn to budget my money’
40
Q

Secondary appraisal

A
  • Evaluation of our ability to deal with the situation
  • Involves evaluating the mechanisms + resources available to cope
  • Coping options can be:
    • Internal – strength and determination
    • External – support from family or friends
  • Adequate coping resources = little / no stress
  • Inadequate resources = stress
41
Q

Strengths and limitations of the TMS

A
  • Strengths
    • Emphasises subjective nature of stress response
    • Explains why people respond to stressors differently
    • Developed with reference to observations of people
  • Limitations
    • 1 & 2 appraisal can interact & occur simultaneously
    • Difficult to test through experimental research due to variability of individual stress responses
    • Stress can be experienced without thinking about the situation (appraisal is not essential)
42
Q

Role of appraisal in the TMS

A
  • Whether a person experiences stress depends upon the individual’s evaluation of the particular event
  • Situation only leads to stress if it is interpreted as –ve
43
Q

Coping

A
  • Attempting to manage stressor in some effective way
  • Involves cognitive & behavioural efforts to manage stressors that are appraised as exceeding one’s resources
44
Q

Coping strategies

A
  • Methods used to manage stress due to stressor
  • May involve an action(s) or a thought process
  • Divided into approach and avoidance coping
45
Q

Context-specific effectiveness

In relation to coping strategies

A
  • When a coping strategy matches or is a ‘good fit’ to the stressful situation
  • E.g. an effective coping stategy when stressed about an exam would be planning and studying, whereas ‘wishful thinking,’ whilst engaging in minimal study is likely to be detrimental
46
Q

Factors that influence the effectiveness of a coping strategy

A
  • Personality, knowledge, skills, interests and preferences
  • Access to social support from family, friends or community
47
Q

Coping flexibility

A
  • Ability to effectively modify a coping strategy according to the specific demands of the stressor
  • Selecting a coping strategy that suits the specific situation
  • Recognising when a coping strategy is ineffective
  • Discontinuing 👎🏻 coping strats / implementing alternatives
48
Q

Individual coping flexibility

A
  • Individuals with high coping flexibility:
    • More likely to adequately cope w positive outcomes
    • Able to adjust a coping strategy if found ineffective
    • Good fit between strategy and situation’s demands
  • Individuals with low coping flexibility:
    • Not very adaptable (less likely to adequately cope)
    • Rely on same coping strategies, even if ineffective
    • Use same strategies across diff stressful situations
49
Q

Relationship between coping flexibility and context-specific effectiveness of coping

A
  • ↑ cop flex +vely influences context-specific effectiveness
  • Makes achieving context-specific effectiveness more likely (can adapt their coping strat to meet demands of stressor)
50
Q

Approach and avoidance coping

A
  • Approach – coping with stress by directly confronting and dealing with the stressor and its effects
    • Creating a solution that minimises / eliminates issue
    • E.g. seeking advice, apologising, taking responsibility
  • Avoidant – evading and indirectly dealing with the stressor and its effects
    • No attempt to actively confront stressor & its causes
    • Ineffective in the long-term
    • E.g. denial, distancing, procrastination
51
Q

Advantages and disadvantages of approach strategies

A
  • Advantages
    • Direct management is beneficial in the long-term
    • Generally considered more adaptive and effective
  • Disadvantages
    • Requires more energy and focus, which may cause the individual to neglect other aspects of their life
    • Not suitable for every situation (e.g. when nothing practical can be done about the stressor)
52
Q

When avoidance coping can be effective

A
  • If the stressor is beyond one’s control and nothing practical can be done to address it
    • Avoiding unnecessary exposure to the stressor can prevent unnecessary distress
    • E.g. ignoring or avoiding a pessimistic co-worker
  • Dealing with stress in the short term
    • More when coupled w / followed by approach cop
    • E.g. firstly distancing (avoidance) during an argument to calm intense emotions, then returning to situation to effectively communicate (approach)
53
Q

Exercise as a coping strategy

A
  • Uses up cortisol, helping the body return to homeostasis
  • Releases endorphins which reduces negative emotions
  • Reduces muscle tension from fight / flight
  • Focus on breathing / repetitive movement (calming effect)

NOTE: Exercise is commonly an avoidant strategy. It can be an approach strategy IF the source of stress is the need to improve physical fitness (e.g. a low fitness level resulting in poor self-esteem and stress).

Psychology U3/4 (11 decks)

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