Chapter 3 (Review) Flashcards
1
Q
What does the term ‘mother-in-law’ historically mean?
A
Stepmother
This illustrates how words can change meanings over time.
2
Q
Does the truth change if a word’s meaning changes?
A
No
Truth remains constant even if the expressions of propositions change.
3
Q
What is the difference between a ‘sentence’ and a ‘proposition’?
A
A sentence is a string of words; a proposition is the truth or falsehood behind those words.
4
Q
Can the same sentence express different propositions?
A
Yes, if the context or word meanings differ.
5
Q
What does logic study?
A
The relationships between true or false statements (propositions).
6
Q
Define ‘cognitive meaning’.
A
The information a sentence conveys.
7
Q
Define ‘emotive force’.
A
The emotion a sentence expresses or evokes.
8
Q
Give an example of cognitive meaning.
A
‘There are approximately 20,000 homicides in the U.S.A. each year.’
9
Q
Give an example of emotive force.
A
‘There’s a bloodbath on our streets!’
10
Q
Why should we focus on cognitive meaning in logic?
A
Emotive language can distract or persuade without evidence.
11
Q
What is an ambiguous word?
A
A word that has more than one distinct meaning.
12
Q
What is a vague word?
A
A word that has unclear boundaries or borderline cases.
13
Q
What is the purpose of defining terms?
A
To eliminate ambiguity or vagueness.
14
Q
What is the extension of a term?
A
The set of actual things to which the term applies.
15
Q
What is the intension of a term?
A
The properties a thing must have to fit the term’s definition.
16
Q
What is an ostensive definition?
A
Defining by pointing to examples.
17
Q
What is an enumerative definition?
A
Listing each member individually.
18
Q
What is a stipulative definition?
A
Assigning a new meaning independent of old use.
19
Q
What does ‘genus’ refer to in definitions?
A
A broad category/class.
20
Q
What is a species in the context of definitions?
A
A sub-class within the genus.
21
Q
What is a necessary condition?
A
A requirement that must be met for something else to be true.
22
Q
What is an equivocation?
A
Using a word with multiple meanings in one argument.
23
Q
What is a merely verbal dispute?
A
A false disagreement caused by different meanings of a word or phrase.
24
Q
What is a circular definition?
A
A definition that uses the same term you’re trying to define.
25
What are the '3 A's of bad definitions'?
* Ambiguity
* All-encompassing (too wide)
* All-excluding (too narrow)
26
What does the mnemonic 'C-E-L-L' stand for?
* Cognitive = Content
* Emotive = Emotion
* Logic focuses on Literal content
27
What is the difference between persuasion and argument?
Persuasion relies on emotion; argument relies on logical premises.
28
What is an emotional language?
Words that evoke feelings rather than purely convey facts.
29
What defines a borderline case?
A case where it’s unclear if the term applies or not due to vagueness.
30
What is an indexical expression?
Words like 'I,' 'here,' 'now,' which change meaning depending on context.
31
What is the difference between subjective and objective?
* Subjective: Influenced by personal feelings
* Objective: Based on facts outside personal bias
32
What is an example of a fact?
A proposition that is true in reality.
33
What is an example of an opinion?
A belief or judgment that may or may not be backed by evidence.
34
What does a counterexample show?
That a definition is too wide or too narrow.
35
What is the significance of the truth value?
It indicates whether a proposition is true or false.
36
What is the difference between direct and implicit emotive language?
* Direct: Clearly aims to provoke strong emotion
* Implicit: Subtly evokes emotions
37
What is a fallacy?
A common error in reasoning that makes an argument invalid or unsound.
38
What is the criteria for good definitions?
* Not too wide
* Not too narrow
* Not obscure
* Not circular
* Prefer affirmative
* Attributes must be contextually suitable
39
What does the mnemonic 'W-O-N-C-A' represent?
* Wide/Narrow
* Obscure
* Negative
* Circular
* Attributes
40
What is an Ostensive Definition?
Defining by pointing (e.g., 'rock' = points to a rock)
## Footnote
This method relies on physical demonstration rather than verbal description.
41
What does an Enumerative Definition involve?
Listing individual examples (e.g., 'Scandinavia' = Denmark, Norway...)
## Footnote
This approach provides clarity by specifying instances.
42
What is a Definition by Subclass?
Grouping examples (e.g., 'feline' = tigers, lions...)
## Footnote
This definition categorizes items under a broader class.
43
What is a Lexical Definition?
Dictionary/conventional meaning
## Footnote
This reflects the standard use of a term in language.
44
What is a Stipulative Definition?
Inventing a new meaning (e.g., 'grellow' = green/yellow)
## Footnote
This is often used in specialized contexts or discussions.
45
What does a Precising Definition aim to do?
Reducing vagueness (e.g., 'poor' = income < $20k)
## Footnote
It seeks to clarify terms that may be interpreted differently.
46
What is a Theoretical Definition?
Explains nature (e.g., 'knowledge' = justified true belief)
## Footnote
This type of definition often involves philosophical concepts.
47
Define 'Genus' in terms of classification.
Broad class (e.g., 'animal')
## Footnote
This represents a higher-level category encompassing various species.
48
What is meant by 'Species'?
Subclass within genus (e.g., 'dog')
## Footnote
This refers to a specific group under a broader category.
49
What is the 'Difference' in a definition context?
Trait distinguishing species (e.g., 'young' for 'puppy')
## Footnote
This helps differentiate between similar categories.
50
What does Definiendum refer to?
Word being defined
## Footnote
This is the term that is subject to explanation.
51
What is Definiens?
Words doing the defining
## Footnote
These are the terms used to explain the definiendum.
52
What is Equivocation?
Using a word ambiguously in an argument
## Footnote
This can lead to misunderstandings and fallacies.
53
What is a Merely Verbal Dispute?
Fake disagreement due to word ambiguity
## Footnote
This occurs when the disagreement is based on differing interpretations of terms.
54
Define 'Persuasive Definition'.
Biased definition favoring a view
## Footnote
This type of definition can manipulate perceptions.
55
What is a Circular Definition?
Definiendum appears in definiens (e.g., 'metaphysics = study of metaphysical issues)
## Footnote
This type of definition fails to provide clarity.
56
What is an Affirmative Definition?
States what something is (vs. what it’s not)
## Footnote
This contrasts with negative definitions that specify what something is not.
57
What is a Counterexample?
Instance disproving a definition’s accuracy
## Footnote
This serves to challenge and refine definitions.
58
What constitutes a Necessary Truth?
True in all possible scenarios (e.g., 2+2=4)
## Footnote
This represents statements that are universally accepted as true.
59
What is Modus Ponens?
If P then Q. P. ∴ Q
## Footnote
This is a fundamental form of valid argument in logic.
60
What does Cognitive Interference refer to?
Emotions blocking logical analysis
## Footnote
This highlights the impact of emotions on reasoning.
61
Define Loaded Language.
Words with strong emotive connotations
## Footnote
This type of language can sway opinions and create bias.
62
What is a Borderline Case?
Unclear if a term applies (e.g., Is a 24-year-old a 'child'?)
## Footnote
These cases challenge the boundaries of definitions.
63
What is a Lexicon?
Established vocabulary of a language
## Footnote
This includes all words and their meanings within a language.
64
What is Theoretical Adequacy?
How well a definition explains a concept’s nature
## Footnote
This assesses the effectiveness of a definition.
65
Define a Valid Argument.
Conclusion logically follows premises
## Footnote
This is crucial for sound reasoning.
66
What is a Sound Argument?
Valid + all true premises
## Footnote
This represents a strong form of argumentation.
67
What is a Fallacy?
Error in reasoning
## Footnote
Identifying fallacies is essential for critical thinking.
68
What does Truth Value refer to?
Truth or falsity of a proposition
## Footnote
This is key in evaluating statements.
69
What is Conventional Meaning?
Socially agreed-upon definition
## Footnote
This reflects the common understanding of terms.
70
Define Neutral Language.
Free of emotive bias
## Footnote
This type of language promotes objectivity.
71
What is a Rhetorical Device?
Language technique to persuade (e.g., emotive words)
## Footnote
These devices are often used in persuasive writing and speeches.
72
What does Definition by Genus & Difference entail?
Genus + distinguishing trait (e.g., 'puppy' = young dog)
## Footnote
This approach combines broader classification with specific attributes.
73
What is a Too Wide Definition?
Includes non-members (e.g., 'bird' = winged animal → bats)
## Footnote
This can lead to inaccuracies in categorization.
74
What is a Too Narrow Definition?
Excludes actual members (e.g., 'bird' = flying animal → penguins)
## Footnote
This restricts the applicability of the definition.
75
What is Cognitive Clarity?
Precision in factual meaning
## Footnote
This is important for effective communication.
76
What does Semantic Shift refer to?
Change in word meaning over time
## Footnote
This phenomenon occurs as language evolves.
77
Define Linguistic Convention.
Social agreement on word usage
## Footnote
This underpins effective communication within a language community.
78
What is Argument Reconstruction?
Rewriting to clarify structure
## Footnote
This helps in understanding and evaluating arguments.
79
What is a Syllogism?
Logical structure with major/minor premises
## Footnote
This is a form of deductive reasoning.
80
Define Cognitive Dissonance.
Mental conflict from contradictory beliefs
## Footnote
This can lead to discomfort and a desire to resolve inconsistencies.
81
What does Persuasive Rhetoric aim to do?
Language aimed at influencing emotions
## Footnote
This is often used in marketing and political speeches.
82
What is Verbal Fiat?
Arbitrary definition to win an argument
## Footnote
This tactic undermines rational discourse.
83
What is Logical Structure?
Underlying form of an argument
## Footnote
This is crucial for assessing the validity of arguments.
84
What is an Essential Attribute?
Necessary property for term application
## Footnote
This is fundamental for defining categories.
85
What does Accidental Attribute refer to?
Non-essential property (e.g., 'human' ≠ 'has ten fingers')
## Footnote
This highlights characteristics that are not critical to identity.
86
What is a Truth-Bearer?
Entity (proposition) that can be true/false
## Footnote
This includes statements, beliefs, and assertions.
87
Define Semantic Precision.
Clarity in word meaning
## Footnote
This is essential for effective communication and understanding.
88
What is Contextual Meaning?
Definition dependent on usage context
## Footnote
This emphasizes how context can alter interpretation.
89
What is Conceptual Analysis?
Breaking down ideas into components
## Footnote
This method is used in philosophy and critical thinking.
90
What is a Linguistic Error?
Mistake in word use (e.g., equivocation)
## Footnote
Identifying these errors is crucial for clear communication.
91
What is an Empirical Fact?
Observable reality (vs. abstract truth)
## Footnote
This is based on evidence and observation.
92
What is Rational Dialogue?
Argumentation free of emotive bias
## Footnote
This promotes constructive discussion and understanding.
