Chapter 3 Lipids and Carbohydrates Flashcards
What provides the body with needed nutrients?
Food
What is CHONPS?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Prosperous, and Sulfur
What are the six most important functional groups?
Amino, carboxyl, carbonyl, hydroxyl, phosphate, and sulfhydryl
Definition of Biological Macromolecule
A large molecule necessary for life; it is built from smaller organic molecules
What are the four major classes of macromolecules?
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
What makes up the majority of cell’s dry mass?
The combination of the four major classes of biological macromolecules
What makes up the majority of a cell’s complete mass?
Water
What makes a molecule or compound organic?
It contains carbon (typically in the form of hydrogen), has a complex structure, and typically contains covalent bonds
What makes a molecule or compound inorganic?
A lack of hydrogen-carbon bonds, small and simple (less atoms), and a tendency towards ionic bonds
Definition of Monomer
The smallest unit of larger molecules called polymers, they are known as single subunits or building blocks of macromolecules
Definition of Polymer
A chain of monomers that is linked by covalent bonds; it is formed by polymerization
Definition of Dimer
An association between two molecules that may be identical (homodimer) or different (heterodimer)
Definition of Tetramer
An association of four molecules (a polymer with four molecules)
Definition of Polymerization
The process of linking monomers or subunits together to form larger molecules
Definition of Dehydration Synthesis
A reaction that links monomer molecules together and releases a water molecule
What happens in dehydration synthesis?
The hydrogen (H) of one monomer combines with the hydroxyl (-OH) of another monomer and releases a molecule of water. Or H + OH = H2O which leaves and creates a bond between two monomers.
Why are there diverse groups of macromolecules?
Because both single types and different types of monomers can combine to form many different types of macromolecules
What happens in hydrolysis?
A polymer breaks and a water molecule is introduced
What is the difference between hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis?
Hydrolysis breaks bonds and releases energy and dehydration synthesis forms bons while using energy
Condensation is another term for what?
Dehydration synthesis
What is one similarity between hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis?
Both are processes that are catalyzed by enzymes
What are the 5 polymers of the monomer sugar?
Starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, and peptidoglycan
What are the 2polymers of the monomer nucleic acid?
RNA and DNA
What are the 2 polymers of the monomer fatty acid?
Phospholipid and triglyceride
What us the polymer of the monomer amino acid?
Protein
Definition of Carbohydrate
A biological macromolecule in which the ration of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1; it is organic
What are some natural sources of carbohydrates?
Grains, fruits, and vegetables
What are the functional groups of charbohydrates?
a carbonyl group and many hydroxyl groups
What is the chemical formula of carbohydrates?
(CH2O)n where n = the number of carbons in the molecule
What are the three subtypes of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
What is the most common monosaccharide?
Glucose
What is the carbon range of monosaccharides?
3 - 7
What suffix most commonly points to something being a carbohydrate?
-ose
What is an aldehyde group?
A functional group; it has the structure R-CHO
What is an aldose?
A sugar with an aldehyde group with the carbonyl group at the end of the chain
What is a ketone group?
The functional group with the structure RC=(O)R’
What is a ketose?
A sugar with a ketone group and a carbonyl group somewhere in the middle of its chain
What is the term for a sugar with three carbons?
triose
What is the term for a sugar with five carbons?
pentose
What is the term for a sugar with six carbons?
hexose
What is the chemical formula for glucose?
C6H12O6
During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose. What does that energy help make?
adenosine triphosphate/ATP
What molecules do plants use to synthesize glucose?
Carbon dioxide and water
What is a starch?
A carbohydrate that works as glucose storage in plants
Definition of Catabolize
The process of larger molecules breaking down into smaller molecules
What is galactose?
A monosaccharide found in lactose, a milk sugar
What is fructose?
A monosaccharide found in sucrose, a fruit sugar
What monosaccharides have the same chemical formula of C6H12O6?
Glucose, galactose, and fructose
What is an isomer?
A molecule or ion with the same types of atoms as another but in a different arrangement
What is the difference between the monosaccharide’s glucose, galactose, and fructose?
They each have different arrangements of their atoms
What are the similarities between the monosaccharide’s glucose, galactose, and fructose?
Chemical formula and the containment of at least one asymmetric carbon
Is glucose an aldose or ketose?
Aldose
Is fructose an aldose or ketose?
Ketose
Is glucose an aldose or ketose?
Aldose
What shapes do monosaccharides come in?
Linear chains or rings
What is an aqueous solution?
A solution in which water is the solvent
6-carbon sugars in aqueous solutions usually come in what shape?
Ring shape
Glucose rings can have two different arrangements of the hydroxyl group around the anomeric carbon; what are they called?
Alpha (a) and Beta (b)
When is a glucose ring alpha?
The hydroxyl group is located below the anomeric carbon and hydrogen atom
When is a glucose ring beta?
The hydroxyl group is located above the anomeric carbon and hydrogen atom
What is an anomeric caarbon?
The first carbon that becomes asymmetric in the process of formation
Definition of Disaccharide
The product of two monosaccharides that the undergone dehydration
What is an oligosaccharide?
A small polymer with few sugars
What happens in dehydration to form a disaccharide?
The hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide bonds to the hydroxyl of another and water is released forming a covalent bond
What is a covalent bond between a carbohydrate and another molecule called?
A glycosidic bond or linkage
Can glycosidic bonds be of alpha or beta arrangements?
Yes
What is an a-1,4 linkage?
a glycosidic linkage between one monomer’s 1’ and the 4’ of another monomer
What is maltose?
A disaccharide made of two glucoses’
What is malt sugar?
Maltose
What are the three most common disaccharides?
Maltose, lactose, and sucrose
What is lactose?
A disaccharide of a glucose and galactose
Where is lactose naturally found?
Milk
What is sucrose?
A disaccharide of glucose and fructose
What is the most common disaccharide?
Sucrose
What is table sugar?
Sucrose
Definition of a Polysaccharide
A chain with a minimum of 10 monosaccharides linked via glycosidic bonds
What are the primary examples of polysaccharides?
Starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, and peptidoglycan
Definition of Starch
A polysaccharide that is the stored form of sugars in plants made of glucose polymers called amylose and amylopectin
What are two places plant have starch?
seeds and roots
How does starch act in the human diet?
It is broken down by enzymes for cellular absorption
What bonds does starch have?
a-1,4 and a-1,6
What is amylose?
A starch that is unbranched and features bonds a-1,4
What is amylopectin?
A branched starch with branch points a-1,6
Definition of Glycogen
A polysaccharide in vertebrates that is the stored form of glucose
Where is glycogen found?
Muclses and liver
How is glycogen branched?
Has many many branches
Where are the bonds in glycogen?
a-1,4 and a-1,6
What is glycogenolysis?
The process of glycogen being broken down to increase blood glucose levels
Definition of Cellulose
A polysaccharide that makes up the cell wall of plants and provides structural support
What is the most abundant biopolymer?
Cellulose
What items are most cellulosic in nature?
Wood and paper
Where are the bond in cellulose?
b-1,4
How does cellulose have rigidity and tensile strength?
In the cellulose monomer chain, every other monomer is flipped which allows them to pack tightly together
Only select herbivores can break down what?
b-1,4 bonds
What allows the breakdown of b-1,4 bonds?
the enzyme cellulases and bacteria and protists in the rumen
Definition of Chitin
A polysaccharide that forms the outer skeletons of arthropods like crustaceans and insects as well as fungi walls
What is chitin made of?
Repeating units of N-acetyl-B-d-glucosamine, Nitrogen attached every other glucose molecule at the carbon 2 hydrogen atom which connects to acetylamine units
Does chitin contain nitrogen?
Yes
Definition of a peptidoglycan
A polysaccharide that is the main component of bacterial cell walls made of monosaccharides chains linked via peptide bonds
How are peptidoglycans similar to chitin?
Both have nitrogen containing sugars linked to long chains. The sugar is acetylamine
How do peptidoglycans differ from chitin?
peptidoglycans have short chains of amino acids attached to the sugars via peptide bonds
What do peptide bonds do in peptidoglycans?
They link peptidoglycan molecule strands together
What do antibiotics do?
They target bacterial peptidoglycans destroying them
What is Gram staining?
A common stain protocol that distinguishes different types of bacterial walls
How does Gram staining help in the medical field?
Helps determine what antibiotic to use
What does sugar mean?
A common term for simple carbohydrates
What is gram positive?
When a bacterium has a thicker cell wall that retains more purple Gram stain
Glucose is associated with what bodyily fluid?
Blood, it is blood sugar
Chemical formula is also refered to as?
Molecular formula
Are carbohydrates good for people?
Yes
Do carbohydrates contain soluble and insoluble parts?
Yes
What is the insoluble part of a charbohydrate?
Fiber mostly in cellulose
What is the use of fiber?
Promotion of regular bowel movement, additional helpful bulk to fecal matter, regulation of blood glucose consumption rate, and removal of excess cholesterol through the small intestine
What can a fiber-rich diet do
Reduce risk of colon cancer and offer a feeling of fullness
What is the major functions of carbohydrates?
the main source of fuel for living things, structure of cell walls, short term glucose storage
Which carbohydrates serve as glucose storage?
disaccharides, starches, and glycogen
What is photosynthesis?
The process in plants, algae, and some bacteria that create glucose using sun energy
What is cellular respiration?
The process of glucose being broken down to form usable energy ATP
Which carbohydrates serve as structure in cells?
Cellulose, chitin, and peptidoglycan
What are structural carbohydrates formed from?
Long chains of monosaccharides cross-linked together by hydrogen bonds or peptide bonds to form tough, fibrous sheets
Can carbohydrates be used to form other complex molecules?
Yes, like nucleic acid DNA and amino acids
What is the purpose of a special class of carbohydrate that is found on the outer surface of cells?
They are identity markers that help cells of multicellular organisms recognize and communicate with one another
Definition of Lipid
A macromolecule that is nonpolar and insoluble in water
What type of compounds do lipids include?
A diverse group of mostly nonpolar compounds
Are lipids hydrocarbons?
Yes
What types of bonds do lipids mostly include?
Carbon – Carbon, and Carbon – Hydrogen
Are non-poler molecules hydrophobic and what does that mean?
Yes, it means they are insoluble in water
What are the functions of lipids?
Long term energy storage, thermoregulation/insulation for plants and animals, building blocks of hormones, and constituent of cellular membranes
What are the types of lipids?
Fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids
What are the most important lipids?
Fats, phospholipids, and steroids
What are the two main components of a fat molecule?
Fatty acid and glycerol
Definition of Glycerol
An organic compound with three carbons and three hydroxyl groups
Definition of Fatty Acids
A long chain of hydrocarbons to which a carboxyl group is attached
What are long chains of hydrocarbons?
Isoprenoids
What is an isoprene?
Subunits that link together end to end to form isoprenoids
Where are carbons mostly found in fatty acids?
hydrocarbon tails
What are the four major functions of fats and oils?
Protection, insulation, and energy storage
What is the technical and common carbon range of fatty acids?
Technically 4 to 36 and commonly 12-18
Where are the fatty acids attached to in a fat molecule?
One fatty acid is to each hydroxyl group in the glycerol
Definition of Ester Bond
Carbon to oxygen double bond while the carbon is also single bonded to another oxygen
(O - C = O)
How does the ester bond work when a fatty acid joins a glycerol?
The glycerol’s hydroxyl (OH) bonds to the hydroxyl group of the fatty acid and loses a water molecule leaving a bond between the glycerol and fatty acid through an oxygen
What are two other terms to describe fats?
triglycerides and triacylglycerols
What type of saturation do fats include?
saturated and unsaturated
What makes a fatty acid saturated?
A fat molecule only featuring single bonds between neighboring carbons
What is a saturated fatty acid saturated with?
Hydrogen
What makes a fatty acid unsaturated?
A fat molecule that features a double bond between a pair of carbons
What is an unsaturated fatty acid with more than one double bond between carbons called?
Polyunsaturated
What is an unsaturated fatty acid with only one double bond between carbons called?
monounsaturated
Where do mammals store fats?
Adipocytes
What is an adipocyte?
A specialized cells that stores fat
Where do plants typically store fat/oil?
seeds
How is fat/oil used in seeds?
A source of energy for seedling development
Where are unsaturated fats usually found?
plants and fish
Where are saturated fats usually found?
meat n milk
What do unsaturated fats do for humans?
Lower blood cholesterol
What do saturated fats do for humans?
Form plaque in arteries
What are the types of configurations for the double bonds in saturated fats?
Cis and Trans
What is the configuration of a cis unsaturated fat?
Both hydrogen atoms remain on the same side of the carbon chain resulting is a visual bend
Can cis unsaturated fats pack together tightly and what does this mean for its physical form at room temperature?
No, this means a cis fats form a liquid or oil at room temperature
What is the configuration of a trans unsaturated fat?
The hydrogen atoms are on different side of the carbon chain resulting in a straight appearance
Can trans fats pack together tightly and what does that mean for its physical form at room temperature?
Yes, this means trans fats form a solid or fat at room temperature
What does artificial hydrogenation do to oils?
Make em semi-solid
What happens during artificial hydrogenation?
Hydrogen gas is bubbled through oils to solidify them which makes some of the single bonds into double bonds
What happens when there is an increase of trans fats in the human diet?
May increase levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL)/bad cholesterol leading to plaque deposition in arteries increasing risk for heart disease
What are essential fatty acids?
Fatty acids the body needs but cannot produce/synthesize
What are the essential fatty acids for humans?
Omega-3 and Omega-6
How are essential fatty acids obtained?
Via diet
What fatty acids does Omega-3 contain?
Alpha-linoleic acid (ALA), eicosatetraenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
What are all the Omega-3 fatty acids?
Polysaturated
What do Omega-3’s do in the human body?
Reduces risk of sudden death via heart attack, reduces triglycerides in the blood, lowers blood pressure, reduces inflammation, and prevents thrombosis by inhibiting blood clotting
Definition of Wax
A lipid that serves as a protective coating on some feathers, aquatic mammal fur, and leaves
What is waxes relationship with water?
Hydrophobic
What are waxes made up of?
Long fatty acid chains esterified to long-chain alcohols
What is esterified mean?
A conversion into an organic compound by replacing the hydrogen
Definition of Phospholipid
A major constituent of plasma membranes; composed of two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and a glycerol
What is a plasma membrane?
The outer layer of animal cells
What are the parts of phospholipids?
A glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a modified phosphate group
What is a phospholipids relationship with water?
It is both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
What do you call something that is hydrophilic and hydrophobic?
Amphipathic
What part of the phospholipid is hydrophilic and why?
The head is hydrophilic because it contains the phosphate group
What part of the phospholipid is hydrophobic and why?
The tail is hydrophobic because of the fatty acid chains
What is a bilayer of phospholipids?
A matrix structure where there are two layers of phospholipids; both layers have the head facing out and the fatty acids facing in
What are phospholipids responsible for in the plasma membrane?
The membranes dynamic nature
What is micelle?
A structure where the hydrophobic tails face interior and hydrophilic head face exterior not a bilayer!!!!
What happens when phospholipids are put in water?
What happens when phospholipids are put in water
What is a liposome?
A two layer structure where hydrophilic phosphates head face the outside and hydrophobic tails face inside
What type of structure does a phospholipid have?
A bulky structure associated with a liposome
Definition of Steroid
A type of lipid composed of four fused hydrocarbon rings forming a planar structure
What is the structure of steroids?
Fused ring structure
Steroids do not resemble other lipids; why are they then included in the lipid group(?)?
They are hydrophobic/insoluble in water
What characteristics to all steroids share?
They all have four linked carbon rings wand several of the rings have short tails
Steroids have an –OH (carboxyl) functional group which puts them in what classification?
alcohol classification(sterols)
What functional group do many steroids have?
Carboxyl functional group
What is the most common steroid?
Cholesterol
Where is cholesterol synthesized?
Liver
Cholesterol is the precursor to what?
Many steroid hormones like testosterone and estradiol, bile salts, and Vitamin D
What secretes testosterone and estradiol?
Gonads and endocrine glands
What is the purpose of bile salts?
Emulsification of fats and their absorption into cells/helps digest and absorb dietary lipids
What is cholesterol a component of and where is it found?
It is a component of plasma membrane and it’s found in the phospholipid bilayer
