Chapter 3 - Learning And Memory Flashcards
What is learning?
Learning is a change in behavior caused by experience. Learning can occur through simple associations between a stimulus and a response or via a complex series of cognitive activities.
Learning refers to the process by which experiences lead to changes in knowledge, attitudes or behavior.
What is behavioral learning theory?
Behavioral learning theories assume that learning occurs as a result of responses to external events. Classical conditioning takes place when a stimulus that naturally elicits a response (an unconditioned stimulus) is paired with another stimulus that does not initially elicit this response. Over time, the second stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) comes to elicit the response even in the absence of the first.
What is operant / instrumental conditioning?
Operant or instrumental conditioning occurs as a person learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoid those that result in negative outcomes. Whereas classical conditioning involves the pairing of two stimuli, instrumental learning occurs when responding to a stimulus leads to positive or negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement occurs if a reward is delivered following a response. Negative reinforcement occurs if a negative outcome is avoided. Punishment occurs when a response is followed by unpleasant events. Extinction of the behavior will occur if reinforcement is no longer received.
Operant conditioning takes place as an individual learns to perform behaviors that either produce rewards or avoid negative outcomes. While classical conditioning is based upon simple and involuntary responses, which occur after the stimuli, the more complex and deliberate goal oriented operant behaviors are under the direct control of the individual. Operant learning occurs as a result of satisfaction, which follows behavior. The responses are conditioned by consequences, which occur after rather than before behavior.
Skinner developed this theory by experimenting by depriving rats of food before placing them in a box in which depression of a level would supply food. While the first depression of the level was probably accidental the rats were soon conditioned to operate the level to reward them with food.
What is cognitive learning?
Cognitive learning occurs as the result of mental processes. For example, observational learning takes place when the consumer performs a behavior as a result of seeing someone else performing it and. Sing rewarded for it
Cognitive learning occurs as a result of the internal mental process of thinking. The emphasis is upon problem solving, using information from the environment and memory, rather than being controlled by environmental stimuli alone.
What is memory?
Memory refers to the storage of learned information. The way information is encoded when it is perceived determines how it will be stored in memory. The memory systems known as sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory each play a role in retaining and processing information from the outside world
Under the information paradigm, perception is likened to the computer processing of information. Data input, or stimuli that are collected by the sensory receptors, are encoded into a format that is recognized by the memory system, then stored for later retrieval as required. Perception relies heavily upon knowledge retention and the ability of the individual to activate or access knowledge from memory when required.
The memory system comprises of three interrelated levels - sensory stimuli, short term memory and long term memory
How is information stored?
Information is not stored in isolation; it is incorporated into knowledge structures where it is associated with other related data. The location of product information in associated networks and the way it is coded (into more abstract categories) help to determine when and how this information will be activated at a later time. Some factors that influence the likelihood of retrieval include the level of familiarity with an item, its salience (or prominence) in memory, and whether the information was presented in pictorial or written form
How can memory for product information be measured?
Memory for product information can be measured through either recognition or recall techniques. Consumers are more likely to recognize an advertisement if it is presented to them, then they are to recall one without being given any cues. However, neither recognition nor recall automatically or reliably translates into product preference or purchase
Describe classical conditioning
A process in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a unconditioned stimulus resulting in a conditioned response
What types of reinforcement are of importance to marketing strategy?
We have just noted that the consequences resulting from operant behavior can modify the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. These consequences are referred to as reinforcers and may either increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior being repeated.
Action which increases the probability of behavior being repeated by placing an appropriate reward immediately after the behavior is termed positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement involved the removal of a negative or aversive consequence. Behavior which results in a hassle being removed is likely to result in consumer satisfaction and be repeated. Consumers who believe aspirin will reduce pain and headaches for example will be more likely to continue to use it
When behavior results in consequences that are likely to be aversive or unpleasant then behavior is less likely to be repeated. This reinforcement is termed punishment. Marketers may threaten to punish consumers who do not conform to a prescribed behavior by removing warranties
What are reinforcement schedules?
Reinforcement schedules refer to the rate at which marketers apply reinforcers
What is shaping?
Shaping is a process of arranging conditions so that individuals will behave in a certain way, not as an end in itself, but to increase the likelihood of another desired behavior occurring.
What is modelling?
Modelling, or observational learning, results from the observation and emulation of the behavior of others after considering the consequences of this behavior
Modelling or vicarious learning refers to a process which attempts to change behavior by having an individual observe the actions of others.
Three main types of modelling:
Acquisition modelling - whereby an observer learns new response or purchase patterns.
Inhibitory modelling- whereby the likelihood of an individual performing undesirable behavior is decreased. Smoking ads, alcohol abuse ads etc..
Response facilitation - whereby the behavior of others serves merely as discriminative stimuli to remind individuals of previously learned response behavior
What are the three interrelated levels of the memory system?
Stimuli to which the individual is exposed is processed for a fraction of a second by the five senses then enters what is termed sensory memory where its importance to the individual is considered. If the stimuli merits further attention then it is transferred to short term memory
Likened to the working memory of a computer, short term memory matches the newly processed information with existing knowledge in long term memory. The information is evaluated and categorized then either rejected as of no relevance or stored in long term memory
Storage in long term memory requires elaborative rehearsal, or the allocation of meaning through integration with existing knowledge. Most information is store symbolically as a cognitive representation
Knowledge structures
We now know that the interpretation and integration of information in the cognitive processing model results in new modified knowledge being stored in memory. This can be stored in either declarative or procedural form.
Declarative knowledge refers to the meaning that individuals attach when interpreting stimuli. Declarative knowledge is stored in memory as a belief which is a perceived relationship between the attributes of a stimuli and the associated benefits and expectations.
Beliefs are formed through either direct individual experience, from observation or from information provided by social influences such as family, friends and marketers.
The actions that can be taken using this declarative knowledge or beliefs is used to form procedural knowledge which links the concepts of objects and events to behavior.
We also know that an individuals cognitive system combines beliefs about objects, events and behaviors into associative networks that are linked together in memory and may be retrieved when required by the cognitive system.
Can you appreciate the distinctions between:
The meanings that individuals allocate to a products attributes
The consequences of product use and
The relationship between both of these and individual values
