Chapter 3 - Cognitive Foundations Flashcards
3.1 Explain the principles of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, including mental structures, maturation, schemes, assimilation, andaccommodation.
Piaget proposed a stage-based theory of cognitive development, which included the idea of mental structures being groups of cognitive abilities formed at each stage, maturation being the natural driving force behind development from one stage to the next, schemes being generalized ways of organizing thought, assimilation being the practice of adapting outside information to fit one’s internal schemes, and accommodation being the process of adapting one’s mental schemes to fit new outside information.
3.2 Outline Piaget’s first three stages of cognitive development.
The first of Piaget’s stages is called the sensorimotor stage because it primarily involves learning to coordinate movements with the senses. This lasts to about age two. From age two to about age seven is called the preoperational stage. This stage involves learning the use of symbols (such as language and math). The concrete operational stage, from ages seven to eleven, involves learning to use mental operations (such as imagining what would happen if liquid is poured from a tall narrow cup to a short wide cup).
3.3 Explain how formal operations is different from concrete operations.
Formal operations, beginning around age 11, involves acquiring the ability to make and test hypothesis about complex problems that involve multiple variables. The classic example is the pendulum experiment, where children are asked to determine what variable affects the speed of the pendulum’s swing. Individuals who have matured to the formal operations stage will change one variable at a time and observe the results.
3.4 Describe how thinking in adolescence becomes more abstract and complex, using metacognition, metaphor, and sarcasm as examples.
During adolescence, individuals develop the ability to understand multiple meanings of the same language. This allows use of metaphor and sarcasm in their speech. Around this time people also become aware of their own thoughts (they can ‘think about thinking’), which is termed metacognition.
3.5 Summarize the major critiques of Piaget’s theory, and Piaget’s response.
The major critique of Piaget’s theory is that development does not proceed so discreetly through stages as he outlined. Another critique is that formal operations is an academic concept, and researchers studying cultures outside the West have found that not all cultures show formal operations at any age. Piaget asserted that although there is a range in the timing of the stages he described, maturation is based on biology and all people do progress through the four stages he listed in that order.
3.6 Describe pragmatism and how it affects thinking from adolescence to adulthood.
Pragmatism features more prominently in thinking as people enter emerging adulthood. Pragmatism refers to the understand that purely logical concepts must be adapted to be useful in the real world.
3.7 Describe reflective judgment and the difference between dualistic thinking and multiple thinking.
Reflective judgement is the ability to evaluate the logical consistency of an argument. Dualistic thinking refers to the tendency to see problems as ‘black or white’ - having only two possible solutions, those being extreme opposites. Multiple thinking means a person can think about two or more perspectives to a given situation and weigh them equally.
3.8 Identify how the information-processing approach differs from Piaget’s cognitive-developmental approach.
The information-processing approach views development as gradual rather than proceeding in discreet stages. Also, information-processing breaks down cognition into components that each develop separately, as opposed to the whole of cognition moving from one stage to the next in Piaget’s concept of mental structures.
3.9 Compare and contrast selective attention anddivided attention.
Selective attention refers to the ability to filter out distractions when focused on a particular object of attention, while divided attention refers to the ability to ‘multitask’, studying while listening to music for example. Both abilities increase during adolescence, although studies show that divided attention is always detrimental to the quality of that activities being performed.
3.10 Distinguish between short-term, long-term, and working memory, and explain how adolescents use mnemonic devices.
Short-term memory is memory that holds contents that are the current focus of attention, lasting about 30 seconds after that attention shifts. Long-term memory refers to information that can be brought to mind again later, after a period where one was not thinking about that information. Working memory is an area used for processing current work, for example, remembering the numbers in a math problem. A mnemonic device is a way of organizing information into a pattern (an acronym, for example) that makes it easier to remember. Mnemonic devices are used more by adolescents than by younger children.
3.11 Give an example of automaticity, and explain how executive functioning develops in adolescence.
Automaticity refers to performing an activity that is so familiar it requires little conscious thought, such as riding a bike home. Executive functioning is that ability to consciously control thinking, and as it develops during adolescence, cognitive abilities improve.
3.12 Summarize critiques of the information-processing approach.
The two major critiques of the information-processing approach are that it is reductionistic (describing the parts of thought loses something from the whole) and that it includes no role for emotion, while in real life emotion has a significant impact on thinking.
3.13 Describe the features of critical thinking in adolescence and how it can best be promoted inschools.
Critical thinking (the ability to evaluate information being presented and criticize its validity) develops in most adolescents, but secondary education has limited success helping students realize this potential (post-secondary institutions do better with emerging adults). Teaching critical thinking requires small classes where there is regular discourse between students and teachers.
3.14 Explain how decision-making abilities change inthe course of adolescence, including with respect to judging risks.
As people enter emerging adulthood, their ability to anticipate the consequences of their actions improves. Adults are less affected by emotions and by the presence of their friends when making decisions, especially about ‘hot tasks’ that involve immediate reward.
3.15 Explain what social cognition is and what itmeans to say cognitive development functions as an “organizationalcore.”
Social cognition refers to how we think about other people, relationships, and social institutions. Organizational core refers to the concept that cognitive development applies to all areas of life.
