Chapter 3: Biological Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Acetycholine
A
One of the most widespread neurotransmitters within the body. Found in between the nerve cell and skeletal muscles. Important for voluntary movement.
2
Q
Action Potential
A
A wave of electrical activity that originates at the beginning of the axon near the cell body.
3
Q
Adrenal Glands
A
A pair of endocrine glands located adjacent to the kidneys that release stress hormones, such which as cortisol and epinephrine.
4
Q
Agonists
A
a drug that enhances or mimics a neurotransmitter’s actions.
5
Q
All or none principle
A
Individual nerve cells fire at the same strength every time an action potential occurs
6
Q
Antagonists
A
inhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of a neurotransmitter
7
Q
Axon
A
transports info in the form of electrochemical reactions from the cell body to the end of a neuron
8
Q
Axon terminals
A
Bulb like extensions filled with the vesicles (little bags of molecules)
9
Q
Cell body
A
The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus that houses the cell’s genetic material
10
Q
Dendrites
A
Small branches radiating from the cell body that receives messages from other cells and transmit those messages toward the rest of the cell.
11
Q
Dopamine
A
A monoamine neurotransmitter involved in such varied functions as a mood, control of voluntary movement, and processing of rewarding experiences
12
Q
Endorphines
A
A hormone produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus that functions to reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure
13
Q
Epinephrine
A
A hormone and neurotransmitter created in the adrenal gland on the kidneys
14
Q
GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)
A
The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system, meaning that it prevents neutrons from generating action potentials
15
Q
Glial cells
A
Specialized cells of the nervous system that are involved in mounting the immune responses in the brain, removing waste, and synchronizing the activity of the billions of neurons that constitute the nervous system
16
Q
Glutamate
A
Most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brains vertebrates.
17
Q
Ion channels
A
Small pores on the neuron’s cell membrane
18
Q
Hormones
A
Chemicals secreted by the glands of the endocrine system.
19
Q
Hypothalamus
A
A set of nuclei found on the bottom surface of the brain that are involved in regulating motivation and homeostasis by stimulating the release of hormones throughout the body
20
Q
Multiple sclerosis
A
A disease in which the immune system does not recognize myelin and attacks it-a process that can devastate the structural and function of the nervous system
21
Q
Myelin
A
A fatty sheath that insulates axons from one another, resulting in increased speed and efficiency of neutral communication.
22
Q
Neurogenesis
A
The formation of new neurons
23
Q
Neurons
A
One of the major types of cells found in the nervous system, which are responsible for sending and receiving messages throughout the body
24
Q
Neurotransmitters
A
The chemicals that function as messengers, allowing neurons to communicate with one another
25
Norepinephrine
A monoamine synthesized from dopamine molecules that is involved in regulating stress responses, including increasing arousal, attention and heart rate
26
Pituitary Gland
The master gland of the endocrine system that produces hormones and sends commands about hormone production to the other glands in the endocrine system
27
Postsynaptic cell (or postsynaptic neuron)
The neuron that receives neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cell
28
Presynaptic cell (presynaptic neuron)
The neuron that releases its neurotransmitters into the synpase
29
Refractory period
1) Brief period in which a neuron cannot fire; 2) time period which erection and organism are not physically possible
30
Resting potential
Relatively stable state during which the cell is not transmitting messages
31
Reuptake
Process whereby neurotransmitter molecules that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron
32
Serotonin
A monoamine involved in regulating mood, sleep, aggression, and appetite
33
Stem Cells
A unique type of cell that does not have a predestined function
34
Synapses
An area consisting of a neuron's axon terminals and a different neuron's dendrites; these structures are separated by a microscopic space into which neurotransmitters can be released
35
Synaptic cleft
The minute space between the axon terminal and the dendrite
36
Testosterone
A hormone that is involved in the development of sex characteristics and the motivation of the sexual behavior
37
How do nerve cells communicate?
- nerve cells fire because of a process that involves both electrical and chemical factors
- A stimulated nerve cell goes from resting potential to action potential following an influx of positively charged ions inside the membrane of the cells.
- A message reaches the end of the nerve cell, neurotransmitters are released into synapses and bind to neighboring postsynaptic cells.
- Depending on type of neurotransmitter, the effect can be either inhibitory or expiatory
38
How do drugs and other substances affect the brain?
- Drugs can be agonists or antagonists
- A drug is an agonist if it enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter
- Outcome if the drug is an agonist if it increases the release of a neurotransmitter, blocks reuptake, or mimics the neurotransmitter by binding to the postsynaptic cell.
- Drug is an antagonist if it blocks neurotransmitter release, break down neurotransmitters in the synapse, or blocks neurotransmitters by binding the postsynaptic receptors
39
What are the roles that hormones play in our behaviour?
- have multiple influences
- The nervous system and the hypothalamus interacts with the endocrine system in controlling the release of hormones
- Some of the humans' hormonally controlled responses include reactions to stress and pain, as well as sexual responses.
- Some hormones are associated with aggressive behaviour
40
Parkison's disease, a common movement disorder, is caused by the destruction of neurons that release which neurotransmitter?
Dopamine
41
A common treatment of depression involves medication that blocks the reuptake of which neurotransmitter?
Serotonin
42
Abnormally low levels of this neurotransmitter can lead to seizures, as is sometimes the case in epilepsy
GABA
43
Low levels of this neurotransmitter would reduce the efficiency of neuromuscular junctions, where neural impulses stimulate muscle movements
Acetylcholine
44
Are we born with all the nerves we will ever have?
No. Neurogenesis - the growth of new neurons - takes place in the regions of the hippocampus, which involves learning, memory, anxiety and stress response, and the inhibition of behaviour.
45
Behavioural genetics
the study of how genes and the environment influence behavior
46
Behavioural genomics
The study of how specific genes, in their interactions with the environment influence behavior
47
Chromosomes
Structures in the cellular nucleus that are lined with all of the genes an individual inherits
48
CRISPR
A technique that allows genetic material to be removed, added, or altered in specific locations of the genome
49
Dizygotic twins
Fraternal twins who come from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells that share the same womb; these twins have approximately 50% of their genetics in common.
50
DNA
A molecule formed in a double helix shape that contains four amino acids: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine
51
Epigenetics
Changes in the gene expression that occur as a results of experience and that do no alter the genetic code
52
Evolution
The change in the frequency of genes occurring in an interbreeding population over generations
53
Evolutionary psychology
Attempts to explain human behaviors based on the beneficial functions they may have served in our species' development
54
Genes
They are responsible for guiding the process of creating the proteins that make up our physical structures and regulate development and physiological processes throughout the lifespan
55
Genotype
Genetic makeup of an organism
56
Heritability
A statistic, expressed as a number between 0-1 that represent the degree to which genetic differences between individuals and contribute to individual differences in a behaviour or trait found in a population
57
Heterozygous
If two corresponding genes at a given location on a pair of chromosomes differ
58
Homozygous
If two corresponding genes at a given location on a pair of chromosomes are the same
59
Human Genome Project
Massive effort to identify the components of the entire genome
60
Hunter-gatherer theory
links performance on specific tasks to the different tiles performed by the males and females over the course of evolutionary history
61
Longitudinal studies
Studies that follow the development of the same set of individuals through time
62
Monozygotic twins
twins who come from a single egg which makes them genetically identical (almost 100% genetic similarity)
63
Natural Selection
the process by which favorable traits become increasingly common in a population of interbreeding individuals, while traits that are unfavorable become less common
64
Phenotype
The physical traits and behavioral characteristics that show genetic variation
65
How do twin and adoption studies reveal relationships between genes and behaviour?
- both measure genetic, environment, and interactive contributions to behavior.
- Twin studies typically compare monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins
- adoption studies compare adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents
- These designs allow researchers to determine heritability
66
What are the estimates of the heritability of human characteristics?
Between 0.40 - 0.70
67
Is there a specific gene that relates to a single trait or behaviour?
No. Most psychological traits involve multiple genes, some of which may not yet have been discovered.
68
What are the explanations for cognitive gender differences that are rooted in genetics
Research shows that males have an average when it comes tot specific mental rotation task. High testosterone levels are associated with better performance on the task, and the male advantage has been found cross culturally. Seems this difference has a genetic basis
69
How do studies of split-brian patients reveal the workings of the brain?
- Revealed the two hemispheres of the brain and how they are specialized for certain for cognitive tasks
- left = language and speed h
- right = attention, the process of visual shapes, emotions
70
What area of the brain controls visual problems
Occipital lobe
71
What area of the brain controls speech production?
Broca's area
72
What area of the brain controls movement?
Cerebellum
73
What area of the brain controls memory?
Hippocampus
74
Explain whether neuroplasticity will help patients with brain damage
- if the damage is isolated to one cerebral hemisphere, cells in the same region of the opposite hemisphere may be able to take over of the impaired functions
- possible that some of the cells were undamaged; these remaining cells may form new, stronger connections over the course of rehabilitation
75
Amygdala
- regulates emotions and encode memories
76
Autonomic nervous system
- portion of the peripheral nervous system responsible for regulating activity of organs and glands
77
Basal ganglia
Group of three structures that are involved in facilitating planned movements, skill learning, and integrating sensory and movement information with the brain's reward system
78
Brainstem
"Stem" of the brain
| - two structures: medulla and pons
79
Central Nervous system
Consists of the brain and the spinal cord
80
Cerebellum
- lobe like structure at the base of the brain that is involved in monitoring movement, maintaining balance, attention, and emotional responses
81
Cerebral Cortex
- convoluted, wrinkled outer layer of the brain
| - thought, language, and personality
82
Cerebral hemispheres
- nearly symmetrical halves of the brain that contain the same structures
83
Corpus Callosum
Collection of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres
84
Cortical deafness
Problems with hearing despite that patient's ears work perfectly
85
Forebrain
- consists of all neutral structures that are located above the mid brain, including all folds and grooves on outer surface of brain
- multiple interconnected structures in the forebrain are critical to such complex processes as emotion, memory, thinking and reasoning
86
Frontal lobes
Involves planning, regulating impulses and emotion, language production, and voluntary movement
87
Hemispheric Specialization
Two sides of the cortex often perform a very different functions
88
Hippocampus
Critical for learning and memory. Formation of the new memories
89
Huntington's disease
A condition involving uncontrollable movements of the body, head, and face
90
Limbic system
Integrated network involved in emotion and memory
91
Midbrain
Involved in sensory and motor areas
92
Neglect (or visual neglect)
Situation in which the patient does not attend to anything that appears in the left half of their visual field
93
Neuroplasticity
Capacity of the brain to change and rewire itself based on individual experience
94
Occipital lobes
Rear part of the brain and is where visual info is processed
95
Parasympathetic nervous system
- balances homeostatic balance in the presence of change
- sympathetic arousal
- works to return the body to a baseline, non-emergency state
96
Parietal lobes
Experiences of touch and bodily awareness
97
Peripheral; Nervous System
A division of the nervous system that transmits signal between the brain and rest of body and is divided into sub components: somatic and automatic systems
98
Parkinson's disease
A neurological disorder involving tremors and difficulties making movement
99
Reticular formation
Extends from the medulla upward to the mid-brain
| - involved with attention and alertness
100
Somatic nervous system
Nerves that control skeletal muscles, which are responsible for voluntary and reflexive movement; consist of nerves that receive sensory input from body
101
Sympathetic nervous system
Responsible for the fight or flight response of an increase heart rate. dilated pupils, and decreased salivary flow-responses that prepare the body for action
102
Temporal lobes
- Located at the sides of the brain by ears
| - involved in hearing, language, and object and face recognition
103
Thalamus
Set of nuclei in relaying sensory info to different regions of brain
104
Tourette's syndrome
Condition marked by erratic and repetitive facial muscle movements, heavy eye blinking, and frequent noise making such as grunting, snorting or sniffing
105
Trophic Factors
Chemicals that stimulate growth of new dendrites and axons
