Chapter 3 Flashcards

Question

Feeding

Answer 1

Feeding times vary * Frequency ranges from 8 to 14 times a day, intervals from 1.5 to 5 hours * Breast vs bottle feeding o Protection from illness: Breast milk contains antibodies that protect babies from diseases like diarrhoea, bronchitis, pneumonia, and allergies. o Brain development: Breast milk helps the baby’s brain grow and supports nerve development, while cow’s milk mostly supports muscle growth. o Easier digestion: Breast milk is easier to digest, so breastfed babies have fewer problems like constipation and diarrhoea. o Healthy weight: Breastfed babies tend to be leaner at one year, which may lower the risk of obesity later. o Better jaw and teeth: Sucking from the breast helps the jaw grow properly and lowers the risk of tooth decay, which can happen if a baby sleeps with a bottle. o No need for extra food early on: Breast milk has enough nutrients for the first six months. It also contains iron that is easily absorbed. Formula needs added iron. o Easier transition to solids: Breastfed babies may accept new foods more easily because breast milk carries flavours from the mother’s diet. o Convenience: Breast milk is always ready, clean, and at the right temperature. It’s also easier when travelling and costs less than bottle feeding. o Health benefits for the mother: Breastfeeding lowers the risk of breast and ovarian cancer. * Psychological advantages, such as feelings of security & a emotionally enriching experience * Breastfed babies may also ingest substances such as nicotine, alcohol, dagga, and other drugs, as well as HIV, via their mother's milk * Exclusive breastfeeding is recommended for up to 6 months of age, with continued breastfeeding along with appropriate complementary foods up to two years of age

Answer 2

Classical conditioning o Cannot be conditioned with any kind of stimulus. For example, it was found that when neonates are stroked softly just before they are given something sweet to eat, they could be conditioned to suck only when stroked. * Operant conditioning o ‘Reward’ to encourage behaviour. For example, researchers succeeded in regulating the head movements of neonates by giving them something sweet every time they turned their heads in a specific direction. * Imitation/modelling o Imitate facial expressions and gestures of adults. For example, they found that neonates could imitate several facial expressions and gestures of adults, such as opening their mouths, sticking out their tongues, and opening or closing their hands.

Answer 3

Infancy, which lasts from birth to about two years old, is a time of rapid growth and development. It is a critical stage because it shapes future behaviour. It is challenging because infants begin to explore their environment by crawling, walking, and running. However, it is also dangerous because infants often can’t understand the risks of their actions, like running into traffic, jumping into water, or touching electrical outlets. Physical development General physical development * Physical growth follows a predictable pattern: 45 o Cephalocaudal principle (Ruffin, 2019), where development progresses from head to toe (cephalic to caudal), from near to far (proximal to distal), and from general reflexes to specific goal-oriented actions. For example, head control develops before voluntary control of the arms and legs, and large muscle control in the upper arms comes before smaller muscle control in the hands (Gerber et al., 2010). * Differences in the speed of development affect body proportions. o During the first year of life, the trunk grows the fastest, while in the second year, the legs grow the most (Sigelman et al., 2018). Weight changes are more dramatic in the first year, with an average baby doubling their weight every four to five months. By 12 months, the average baby is about 72 cm tall. * Skeletal and muscular growth is also rapid, especially during the first 12 months. o The closure of the fontanel, the soft tissue between the skull bones, occurs, allowing the skull to adapt to the pressures of birth. Teeth typically appear between six and eight months. * The nervous system grows quickly during the first two years as well. * Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) occurs when there is a: o Vulnerable infant o Vulnerable period o Triggering factor

Answer 4

Brain Structures and Their Functions Scientists categorize the brain into three main regions: the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. o Forebrain  Contains the entire cerebrum (cerebral cortex) and is the largest part of the brain.  Associated with higher functions like learning, thought, and action.  Divided into two hemispheres (left and right) and four lobes:  Frontal Lobes: Involved in voluntary movement, expressive language, and cognitive functions.  Parietal Lobes: Process sensory information such as temperature, taste, touch, and body movement.  Occipital Lobes: Associated with vision and visual processing.  Temporal Lobes: Play a role in hearing and memory. o Hindbrain  Located beneath the limbic system, includes:  Cerebellum: Regulates and coordinates movement, posture, and balance. rainstem: Connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord and controls vital functions like breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.  Pons: Bridges the cerebrum and cerebellum, controls reflexes, and helps with muscle movements like biting and swallowing.  Medulla Oblongata: Transfers neural messages to and from the brain and spinal cord. o Midbrain  The smallest region of the brain, located below the cerebrum and above the brainstem.  Serves as a connection point between the forebrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord.  Limbic System The limbic system is involved in emotional and behavioural responses. It includes: o Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex. o Hypothalamus: Regulates functions of the pituitary gland and somatic functions like body temperature, sleep, and appetite. o Basal Ganglia: Involved in movement, learning, reward processing, and habit formation. o Amygdala: Plays a role in emotionally charged memories and is linked to emotions like fear and rage. o Hippocampus: Crucial for forming new memories and organizing information.  Hemispheres and Lateralization o The two hemispheres of the brain are connected by the corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve cells. o Left Hemisphere: Primarily responsible for speech, grammar, and logical tasks. o Right Hemisphere: Associated with humour, metaphors, and creative tasks. o Lateralization: The specialization of functions in one hemisphere over the other. o Despite these specializations, complex thinking requires communication between both hemispheres. o Research shows that both hemispheres work together for most mental tasks, and there is no strong evidence to support the idea that people are either "left- brained" or "right-brained."  Conclusion o While specific brain regions may dominate certain functions, most behaviours and abilities depend on cooperation between both hemispheres.

Answer 5

Neurons and Brain Structure o Neurons are the fundamental units of the brain, transmitting information via electrical impulses and chemical signals. o Each neuron consists of:  Cell body  Axon: A long projection that carries signals away from the cell body.  Dendrites: Tiny branches that receive signals from other neurons. o In the adult brain, neurons form complex connections, collectively referred to as the grey matter. These connections coordinate thought, emotion, movement, and sensation.  Neural Pathways o Neurons are connected in complex pathways, allowing rapid communication between the brain and the rest of the body. o When signals are transmitted, they travel along a neural circuit:  The signal moves from one neuron’s axon to the dendrites of the receiving neuron, like passing a baton in a relay race.  Synapse: The tiny gap between the axon and dendrites where communication occurs.  Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that convert electrical signals into communication across synapses.  Neurotransmitters and Their Functions o Neurotransmitters are crucial for numerous brain and bodily functions:  Acetylcholine: Involved in muscle movement, attention, memory, and learning.  Noradrenaline: Mobilizes the brain and body for action, regulating blood pressure, heart rate, and glucose.  Dopamine: Important for emotion, motivation, and motor control.  Serotonin: Regulates sleep, appetite, mood, and sexual functions.  Synapse Development and Synaptic Pruning o Synapse Formation:  Synapses are formed genetically and through experience.  The infant brain has more synapses than the adult brain, peaking in infancy. o Synaptic Pruning:  The elimination of unnecessary synapses improves efficiency in information processing.  This process occurs at specific points in development, particularly in areas related to cognitive function.  White Matter and Its Role in Brain Development o White Matter: A network of neural connections that links all four brain lobes and the limbic system (emotion centre).  Contains myelin, a fatty substance that insulates axons, helping the brain transmit signals quickly and efficiently. o Myelinated axons transmit impulses faster than non-myelinated ones, contributing to more efficient brain function. o The frontal regions of the brain have a high abundance of white matter, aiding in mental operations and integration.

Answer 6

The brain develops over time, starting with simple connections and skills, and then moving to more complex ones (Centre on the Developing Child, 2021). Important brain developments in infancy include: * Brain size: In the first year, a baby’s brain doubles in size. By the end of infancy, it’s about 75% the size of an adult brain. * Brain areas: Some parts of the brain develop earlier than others. o By 7 months after conception, areas that control basic functions like breathing and heartbeat are already formed. o Movement areas develop before the ones that handle senses like sight and touch. o Emotional parts of the brain start to work in the first year, but skills like emotional control keep developing into childhood. o The frontal lobes (used for thinking and decision-making) take the longest to develop — they aren’t fully developed until late adolescence or early adulthood. * Neurons: o In the first year, the brain forms lots of new connections (called synapses). o After that, synaptic pruning begins — the brain removes connections it doesn’t need, especially in areas developing quickly. o For example, the part of the brain used for seeing prunes quickly when babies are developing their vision. o The more babies move or use language, the more those brain pathways grow. o New branches (dendrites) grow, and neurons connect more with each other. o Myelination is another key process — it helps signals move faster through the brain and starts before birth and continues after. * Influences on brain development: o Many things affect how the brain develops, like parenting, trauma, poverty, environment, and genetics. These factors are discussed more in the rest of the book.

Answer 7

 Definition & Purpose: o Gross motor skills involve the coordination of large muscle groups. o Used for movements like crawling, sitting, standing, walking, running, and balance (Gonzales et al., 2019). o The main goal is to achieve independent and voluntary movement. Role of Reflexes and Nervous System Maturation:  Primitive reflexes remain for several months after birth to prepare infants for skill development.  As the central nervous system matures, reflexes disappear, enabling purposeful movements: Asymmetric tonic neck reflex: Its disappearance allows:  Rolling over  Bringing hands to the midline  Reaching for objects o Moro reflex: Its disappearance helps with:  Head control (by 4 months)  Sitting independently Postural Reactions (develop after birth):  Include righting and protection responses  Help infants protect themselves when falling: o Forward o Sideways o Backwards  These develop between 6–9 months, coinciding with: o Moving into a seated position o Transitioning to hands and knees Standing and Walking:  Development of equilibrium helps with: o Pulling to stand (~9 months) o Walking (~12 months)  Note: Crawling is not a prerequisite for walking; pulling to stand is essential before first steps. Second-Year Developments (after birth):  More complex balance responses develop, supporting: o Moving backward o Running o Jumping  Walking evolves: o From wide-based, bent, unsteady steps at 12 months o To upright, narrow-based, coordinated steps o Arm movements change from raised for balance to alternating swinging Later Gross Motor Milestones (~2 years):  Simultaneous use of both arms or legs follows individual limb control.  By age 2, a child can: o Kick a ball o Jump with both feet off the floor o Throw a ball

Answer 8

* Involve use of the upper extremities: arms, hands, and fingers. * Allow for environmental interaction: manipulating objects, self-help tasks, play, writing, and work (APA, 2020). * Require small, precise movements. * Interconnected with other developmental areas: gross motor, cognitive, and perceptual skills.

Answer 9

 Early infancy: o Arms/hands used for support in rolling, crawling, and standing. o Exploration begins with hands even while lying on back.  Birth: o No purposeful hand use. o Movement dominated by grasp reflex. o Exploration primarily through visual means.  5–7 months: o Begin purposeful grasping. o 5 months: Entire hand used to grasp. o 7 months: Palmar grasp develops.  6–12 months: o Fingers begin assisting in grasping. o 8 months: Scissor grasp (four fingers against thumb). o 9 months: Two fingers and thumb used. o Pincer grasp (index finger + thumb) develops. o 10 months: Voluntary release of objects begins. o 12 months:  Mastery of pincer grasp.  Enjoys placing and removing items from containers.  15–24 months: o 15 months: Stacks 3–4 blocks, releases small objects into containers. o 18 months: Adjusts grasp to scribble. o 20 months: Uses a spoon to eat. o 2 years:  Builds a six-block tower.  Feeds self, removes clothes, turns doorknob.  Draws vertical/horizontal lines.  Rotates objects (e.g., unscrews lids, puzzle pieces).  Washes and dries hands.

Answer 10

 Starts to appear around 1 year, often favouring the right hand (~90%).  Hand swapping is common until 3–4 years.  Historically viewed as a developmental abnormality (especially left-handedness).  Now understood to exist on a continuum from strong left to strong right-handedness.  No significant differences between left- and right-handers in: o Personality o Intelligence o Academic/work performance  Causes of hand preference are likely biological and genetic

Answer 11

 Development follows a predictable sequence, but timing varies widely.  Skipping steps (e.g., not crawling) is normal for some.  "Red flags" for concern: o No head control while sitting by 4 months. o Cannot sit by 9 months. o Cannot walk independently by 18 months.

Answer 12

 Early walking not necessarily a sign of future genius.  Some correlations found between: o Early walking → better adaptive/cognitive skills (Ghassabian et al., 2016; Marrus et al., 2018). o Delayed walking → linked to intellectual disability (Bishop et al., 2016).  Emphasis on individual differences; averages do not apply to all.

Answer 13

 Both genetic maturation and environmental stimulation influence motor development.  Cultural practices affect development pace: o Restrictive practices (e.g., swaddling, constant carrying) may delay early motor skill practice. o Encouraging practices (e.g., propping, massage, tummy time) may promote earlier development. o Toy provision (e.g., rattles, puzzles, blocks) helps stimulate motor skills.  Despite cultural differences, by age 6, motor development generally equalizes across cultures.  Suggests genetics has a stronger influence than parenting styles.

Answer 14

 Socio-economic status: o Some global findings suggest influence. o South African research shows no significant motor skill differences across income groups.  Gender: o No notable differences in early motor milestones (sitting, crawling, walking). o Gender differences emerge only after age 2.

Answer 15

Depth perception: * Important because it protects the child against dangerous situations * Visual cliff (Gibson and Walk, 1960) o Visual experiences appear to be more important than tactile experiences o Showed that babies 6-14 months can perceive depth o Additional research has shown that younger babies do realise something is different. Depth perception of human babies matures sooner than their motor development does Visual constancy: * Objects appear the same to us in spite of variations in sensory input * Size constancy is present in infants as young as 18 weeks, although evidence of size constancy was even found in laboratory experiments with neonates * In a classical study, Bower (1971) carried out a simple experiment in which he made a train move from left to right behind a screen. When he replaced the train with a ball, babies of 22 weeks were surprised and looked for the train where it had disappeared previously on the left-hand side. Babies of 16 weeks apparently did not notice the change. Later research indicated that size constancy is present in infants as young as 18 weeks, although evidence of size constancy was even found in laboratory experiments with neonates.

Answer 16

 At Birth: Neonates are considered legally blind.  0–3 Months: o Rapid improvement in the eyes’ ability to focus. o By three months, focusing ability is comparable to that of adults. o Visual acuity (sharpness of vision) increases significantly.  4–6 Months: o By four months, infants can distinguish most colours. o By six months, colour perception is similar to that of adults.  Around 12 Months: o Visual acuity is approximately the same as in adults.

Answer 17

Initially very general; becomes more specific over time due to perceptual narrowing (Krasotkina et al., 2018).  Infants show preference for familiar faces.  Experience plays a crucial role: o Preference for female faces is common due to predominant exposure to female caregivers. o Infants with male primary caregivers show a preference for male faces.

Answer 18

 At Birth: React only to loud sounds (~60 decibels).  3 Months: React to softer sounds (~43 decibels).  6 Months: Reasonably well-developed hearing; can recognise their own name.  8 Months: Respond to even softer sounds (~34 decibels).  Hearing prepares infants for social interaction.

Answer 19

Refers to the ability to integrate and coordinate information from multiple sensory modalities (e.g., sound, sight, touch, smell).  Examples: o Knowing which mouth movements go with certain sounds. o Recognising a toy by touch that was previously only seen.

Answer 20

 1 Month: Simple intermodal perception begins. o For example, infants can coordinate visual information with objects they have mouthed.  5–6 Months: o Significant intermodal perception develops. o Infants can:  Recognise an object by visual inspection after manipulating it.  Match movement with corresponding sound (e.g., train approaching or moving away).  Match facial and vocal expressions of other infants (Flom, 2013).

Answer 21

Overview:  Infants learn through sensory input and motor activities.  They gradually learn to coordinate these, e.g., seeing an object and reaching for it.  Cognitive development in this stage occurs through circular reactions—repetitions of pleasurable actions first discovered by chance, eventually forming new schemas.  The stage consists of six substages, each showing cognitive advancement. Six Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage: 1. Reflexes (Birth–1 month) o Behaviour is reflexive (e.g., sucking, grasping). o Infants respond to stimuli in the present with no memory or intention. Primary Circular Reactions (1–4 months) o Begin coordinating senses and actions (e.g., sucking thumb). o Repetition of actions involving the infant's own body. Secondary Circular Reactions (4–8 months) o Intentional actions aimed at external environment (e.g., shaking a rattle). o Begin to understand cause and effect via feedback from the environment. Coordination of Secondary Reactions (8–12 months) o Purposeful behaviour with goals (e.g., moving an object to reach a toy). o Combine previous schemas; better understanding of cause and effect. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12–18 months) o Experimentation and problem-solving using trial and error. o Try out new actions to observe different outcomes; described as "little scientists". 6. Mental Representation (18–24 months) o Begin using mental symbols (e.g., images, words). o Use mental planning instead of trial and error (e.g., using a chair to reach a cookie). o Foundations for language, pretend play, and symbolic thought.

Answer 22

1. Object Permanence  Understanding that objects exist even when out of sight.  Develops gradually: o Before 8 months: “Out of sight, out of mind.” o 8–12 months (Substage 4): Begin to search for hidden objects (but show A- not-B error). o 12–18 months (Substage 5): Still struggle with invisible displacements. 4. 5. 18–24 months (Substage 6): Fully grasp object permanence and can mentally track hidden objects. 2. Imitation  Substage 4 (8–12 months): Begin copying behaviour (e.g., facial expressions).  Substage 6 (18–24 months): Deferred imitation emerges—imitating actions after a delay (e.g., mimicking a phone conversation the next day).  Links with the development of mental representation. 3. Symbolic Thinking and Pretend Play  Use of symbols in play (e.g., feeding a doll).  Foundations for: o Language o Categorization (e.g., sorting by colour/shape) o Number concepts

Answer 23

Strengths:  Provided a valuable framework and sequence for early cognitive development. Criticisms: 1. Small, Non-Representative Sample o Based mostly on observations of Piaget’s own three children and others from high-SES backgrounds. 2. Simplistic Methods o Lacked modern experimental controls and techniques. o New studies show infants as young as 2.5–4 months display object permanence using refined testing methods (e.g., measuring looking behaviour). 3. Underestimation of Brain Development o Modern neuroscience (e.g., brain scans) reveals that infants develop memory, goals, and mental processing skills earlier than Piaget suggested. 4. Neglect of Socio-Cultural Factors o Did not account for:  Parental influence  Sibling interaction  Cultural variation in child-rearing Modern scholars stress that cognitive development is inseparable from its cultural context.

Answer 24

Older babies are more effective at processing information due to more advanced cognitive development, which progresses rapidly during the first year of life. * While Piaget proposed six distinct sensorimotor substages, information-processing theorists focus on the gradual and continuous development of specific cognitive abilities. * Techniques such as habituation, visual and auditory preferences, and recognition are used to study infants’ cognitive capacities * Habitation: occurs when babies are exposed to the same stimulus repeatedly and gradually start showing less intertest in it * Dishabituation: occurs when a new stimulus appears and the baby starts paying attention to it instead. * Visual preference: infants tendencies to spend more time looking at one object rather than another * Visual cognition: ability to discriminate between a familiar and unfamiliar object * Auditory discrimination: ability to differentiate between sounds * Cross-cultural studies, though limited, show that the qualitative aspects of sensorimotor development are similar across different cultures, supporting Piaget’s findings. Minor differences—like African infants slightly outperforming American ones at six months—may reflect environmental influences. For instance, African babies receive more emotional and social stimulation, while European and American infants handle more objects. These cultural variations may influence cognitive development, potentially aligning with Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, which highlights the role of family and cultural values in shaping development.

Answer 25

 Memory involves the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information.  It is crucial for daily functioning, and life would be extremely difficult without it.

Answer 26

1. Short-Term Memory (STM) o Passive system for temporary storage of immediate information. o Limited in both capacity and duration. 2. Working Memory o The “workplace of the mind”; used for actively manipulating information. o Also temporary and limited. 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM) o Responsible for permanent or semi-permanent storage. o Includes:  Episodic Memory: Memory of personal events (e.g., a birthday party).  Semantic Memory: Memory of facts and general knowledge (e.g., knowing what a cat is).  Procedural Memory: Memory of how to do things.  Perceptual (e.g., recognizing faces)  Motor (e.g., tying shoelaces)  Cognitive (e.g., solving a puzzle)

Answer 27

 Implicit Memory: o Unconscious memory. o Influences daily activities (e.g., habits and routines).  Explicit Memory: o Requires conscious effort to recall. o Involves learned knowledge like words and concepts. How Memory is Tested:  Recognition: Identifying familiar objects or faces (e.g., a favourite toy).  Recall: Actively retrieving information or actions from memory. Memory in Infancy:  Memory is fundamental to cognitive, social, and emotional development.  Challenge: Infants cannot verbally communicate what they remember.  Solution: Researchers develop innovative methods to study memory in infants, such as observing behaviours and reactions (e.g., recognition responses).

Answer 28

 Parents reinforce speech by responding to baby sounds (e.g., “bisc” gets a biscuit).  Meaningless/incorrect words fade due to lack of reinforcement.  Reinforcement is often emotional (e.g., a bee sting = stronger memory of “bee”).  Happens even in non-literate societies using child-centred speech. Imitation  Children imitate adult speech and behaviour.  Parents model and expand on children’s speech.  Key assumptions: 1. Parents are expert instructors (others help too). 2. Repetition is crucial, especially in daily contexts. 3. Linguistic stimulation = better speech later.  Responsive parenting (talking, singing, reading) supports development. Criticism of Learning Theory  Doesn’t explain creative errors (e.g., “goodest”).  Imitation-based interventions often fail.  Adult speech can be inconsistent and hard to learn from.  Children with low IQs still learn language – contradicts the idea that intelligence fully determines language ability.

Answer 29

 Language develops from social and emotional interaction, not just learning.  Infants communicate as emotional beings who need others.  Babies engage in “proto-conversations” (e.g., eye contact, smiling, vocalisations).  Parents adjust pitch and tone to elicit responses and maintain attention.  Early conversations teach the melody of speech and turn-taking.  Motivation for language includes connection, not just expression.

Answer 30

Noam Chomsky  Language is innate via a Language Acquisition Device (LAD).  LAD includes brain areas that allow understanding of deep structures in language.  Language learning is like physical growth: it unfolds with the right environment.  All languages have universal structures (e.g., subject, object, negation, etc.). Eric Lenneberg  Language ability is biologically pre-programmed.  There’s a sensitive/critical period before puberty for optimal language learning.  Genie’s case and deaf ASL learners support this idea: o Late exposure = grammatical difficulty. o Early exposure = normal development. Criticism of Nativism  Universal grammar is unproven.  Learning language takes effort and years.  Language acquisition is gradual, not sudden.  Sensitive period is debated (e.g., Charlize Theron’s accent change at age 20).  Adults often outperform children in structured second language learning.

Answer 31

 All theories contribute partial truths: o Learning theory → how sounds/meanings are learned. o Social pragmatism → importance of social interaction. o Nativism → explains creativity and structural mastery.  Most psychologists believe in a dynamic interaction of: o Inborn abilities, o Maturation, o Learning strategies, o Social/environmental input.  No single factor is enough—language emerges from their interaction.

Answer 32

* Unique and relatively consistent way an individual feels, thinks, and behaves * Conceptualisation in basic traits or dimensions * Researchers indicate that adult personality can be described along 5 dimensions (see Table 3.3 The Big Five personality traits) o The universality of the Big Five model tends to be stronger in Western than in non-Western cultures Are the same traits present in children? o Research suggest that aspects of the adult Big Five traits are evident among young children but may be represented by less finely differentiated 'blends' of Big Five traits that become increasingly distinct with development

Answer 33

Biological perspective * Genetic and physiological patterns underlie many of the traits we regard as personality or temperament * Bandura: self-efficacy 63 Learning perspective * Reinforcement and modelling as basic shapers of personality; self-efficacy Psychoanalytic perspective Sigmund Freud  Emphasized the importance of early parental care in personality development.  Believed a mother’s handling of feeding, weaning, and toileting during the oral and anal stages could have long-lasting effects on a child’s personality. Erik Erikson  Acknowledged the importance of nursing and weaning but placed greater emphasis on responding to the infant’s psychosocial needs (comfort, warmth).  According to Erikson: o Basic trust develops in the first year when caregivers are predictable, responsive, and sensitive. o Trust fosters self-confidence and exploration. o Mistrust arises from harsh or erratic care, leading to withdrawal and difficulty relying on others. o As motor and physical development progresses, active interaction increases. o The virtue of hope equips children to face new situations with courage and caution. o Between ages 2–3, the need for independence (autonomy) emerges.  Parents should guide gently and support failures to develop willpower.  Hindering independence can result in shame and doubt, harming self- worth and control. Ethological Perspective John Bowlby  Believed the first two years are a sensitive period for forming attachment relationships, which are vital for emotional well-being.  Claimed infants are born with instinctive behaviours (e.g., crying, smiling) that elicit caregiving.  Caregivers instinctively respond (e.g., picking up crying babies), fostering closeness and nurturing. 64  Lack of strong attachment bonds can lead to social and personality problems later in life. An Integrated Approach  Most modern psychologists believe no single theory fully explains personality development.  A more viable explanation is an integrated approach, recognizing the interaction between biology and environment.

Answer 34

Although some may believe that personality development in infancy is limited or unimportant, research (Bornstein, 2014) suggests the opposite. Most psychologists agree that infancy is a critical period for personality development, as it lays the foundation for future growth. The following points highlight why this stage should not be underestimated: 1. Influence of the Environment  Infants’ experiences are limited and they are highly vulnerable.  As a result, the nature and quality of their environment can strongly shape emerging personality traits.  For example: o Emotional deprivation can negatively impact personality. o Nurturing and devoted parenting supports healthy psychological development. 2. Sensitivity of Developing Traits  Personality traits in active development phases are especially sensitive to environmental influences.  For instance: o During phases of growing independence, overprotective parenting can hinder a child’s ability to engage with their environment. 3. Development of Self-Concept  The sense of self begins to emerge during infancy.  Positive interactions with caregivers can lead to the development of a healthy self- concept later in life. 4. Stability and Change in Personality Traits  Some behaviour patterns formed during early childhood can remain relatively stable over time.  However, this does not mean personality is unchangeable: o Environmental and genetic factors can continue to shape personality, even into adulthood. o There is always potential for personal growth and change.

Answer 35

Emotions are subjective states of mind that can arise from internal stimuli (like thoughts or memories) or external events.  They are central to human functioning—even before birth—and include basic feelings such as joy, sadness, anger, and fear.  Emotions typically emerge in response to specific experiences and are linked to physiological and behavioural changes (e.g., a racing heart when afraid).  Emotions serve adaptive and protective functions: 1. Communicating needs (e.g., crying in infants). 2. Mobilizing action in emergencies (e.g., fear triggering a flight response). 3. Promoting exploration, which leads to learning (e.g., excitement and interest).  Individuals differ in: o Frequency of emotional experiences. o Expression of emotions. o Emotional responses to similar situations.  Emotions are thus a fundamental part of personality.

Answer 36

 Emotions in both children and adults are complex.  Challenges in studying infant emotions: o Emotional responses are not clearly differentiated at birth. o Emotional expressions may also reflect physiological needs, not just internal emotions. o Infants lack language to communicate feelings. o Researchers rely on looking behaviour, facial expressions, body movements, and vocalizations. o Ethical considerations limit certain studies (e.g., Little Albert experiment).

Answer 37

Biologically Based Explanations:  Emotions are innate and genetically inherited.  They are evolutionarily shaped to support human survival.  Early emotional expressions in infants support the idea of innate emotions. Cognitive-Socialisation Explanations:  Emotions arise from cognitive evaluations of situations.  Children’s emotional responses are influenced by: o Past experiences (e.g., being scared by a dog). o Teachings from caregivers (e.g., dogs are dangerous or friendly).  Emotions are shaped by socialisation—the process of learning cultural values and habits. Contextual Explanation:  Focuses on emotional tone and intensity rather than distinct categories.  Emotions are seen as embedded in social interactions.  Cultural and familial influences are emphasized in emotional regulation.

Answer 38

 Basic Emotions: o Appear soon after birth (contentment, interest, distress). o By six months: joy, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, and fear emerge. o By nine months: all basic emotions are present.  Self-Conscious (Secondary) Emotions: o Include embarrassment, empathy, jealousy. o Emerge between 15 and 24 months, following the development of self- awareness.  Emotions Involving Others: o Empathy develops in the second year, increasing with age. o Depends on social cognition—understanding others' emotions and perspectives.  Self-Evaluative Emotions: o Include pride, shame, guilt. o Develop towards the end of the second year as children begin to evaluate their behaviour according to social standards.

Answer 39

Newborns can express basic emotions like interest, distress, and disgust.  By seven months, fear is added. Smiling  Initially involuntary (occurs in REM sleep).  By three months, infants show a non-selective social smile in response to pleasant stimuli.  Later, a selective social smile emerges—reserved for familiar people.  Laughter appears around four months  Smiling becomes voluntary and controlled as the cerebral cortex matures.  Adaptive functions: o Enhances parent-child bonding. o Supports the child's emotional and social development. Crying  Newborns cry due to discomfort (e.g., hunger, pain, cold).  Crying is most frequent in the first three months.  Types of cries: 1. Basic (hungry) cry – rhythmic and patterned. 2. Angry cry – more forceful vocalization. 3. Pain cry – long vocalization, silence, and gasping.  By two months, crying becomes more voluntary and situation-dependent.  Crying becomes a communication tool—a way to influence caregivers and express distress. Parental Response to Crying  Babies cry less when comforted quickly and affectionately.  Ignoring or punishing crying can lead to increased aggression and distress.  Excessive crying linked to: o Maternal anxiety/depression. o Early weaning. o Later behavioural issues, such as ADHD.

Answer 40

Two-Way Interaction  Infants' smiles and cries trigger emotional responses from caregivers.  By three months, babies begin to respond to facial expressions: o Smile = baby shows happiness. o Angry tone = baby shows distress.  This interaction forms the basis for attachment bonds. Social Referencing  Between 9 and 18 months, babies engage in social referencing: o They look to caregivers for emotional guidance in uncertain situations. o This indicates a growing understanding that others have feelings and thoughts. BOX 3.9: To Comfort or Not to Comfort a Crying Baby?  Advice to "let the baby cry it out" vs. "comfort the baby" is controversial.  Some studies (Gradisar et al., 2016; Price et al., 2012) show no major long-term difference in outcomes.  However, most researchers recommend comforting: o Crying is a form of communication. o Comforting builds trust and security. o Ignoring needs may lead to mistrust, linking to Erikson's trust vs. mistrust stage. o Excessive "crying it out" may result in neurocognitive deficits (Finegood et al., 2017). Emotion regulation * Strategies we use to adjust or change our emotional state to a comfortable level to accomplish certain goals * Infants have basic capacity to do so * Development of emotion regulation is influenced by the development of the cerebral cortex * Caregivers provide lessons in socially acceptable ways of expressing emotions as expected in specific culture * Part of developing capabilities that are related to social competence and behavioural self-control

Answer 41

* Unique and characteristic mood pattern of a person * Inherent and characteristic way in which a person reacts to stimuli, and generally refers to the aspect of personality that has to do with feelings and the expression * Biologically based individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation and is often applied to traits that appear early in development * Core of personality, although it is not a synonym for personality * Temperament is changeable and that environmental factors can modify children's reactions and behaviour. * Nine dimensions of temperament in children: activity level, rhythm, distractibility, approach or avoidance, adaptability, attention span and persistence, intensity of reaction, responsiveness threshold, and quality of mood. * Most researchers identify three core dimensions (called higher-order traits): effortful control, negative affectivity, and extraversion/ surgency. table pg 70 table pg 71

Answer 42

Temperament and Big Five Personality Traits: o Related to the Big Five traits:  Extraversion (Surgency)  Neuroticism (Negative Affect)  Conscientiousness (Effortful Control)  Openness and Agreeableness: linked to sensitivity and affiliation.  Interactions in Temperament: o Importance of the interaction between reactive impulses and attempts to control them. o Basic biological processes of temperament are universal across cultures, but outcomes differ based on cultural values and experiences.  Developmental Manifestation of Temperament: o Foetus and Newborn:  Distress and avoidant movements.  By 2-3 months: approach reactions like smiling, laughter, and body movement. o Motor Development (4-6 months):  Physical approach behaviours. o Emotional and Fear Reactions:  Anger/frustration evident at 2-3 months.  Fear (behavioural inhibition) at 7-10 months. o Effortful Control:  Emerges by the end of the first year, linked to executive abilities to focus attention.  Stability and Change in Temperament: o Developmental Changes:  Younger children: higher activity levels, emotionality, sociability.  Older children: improved cognitive, emotional, and behavioural control, better focus.  Extraversion: Increases in the first year, decreases in early to middle childhood.  Emotional Temperament: High negative reactivity in infancy linked to emotional and behavioural difficulties at age 5. o Continuity in Traits:  Behavioural inhibitions and uninhibited behaviour show continuity from infancy to toddlerhood and childhood.  Traits like agreeableness, shyness, activity level, and irritability exhibit stability throughout infancy, early childhood, and adulthood.  Temperament and Behavioural Problems: o Risk Factors:  Negative emotionality linked to externalizing (aggression) and internalizing (anxiety) problems.  Shyness predicts anxiety and depression.  High activity levels predict externalizing behaviour.  Effortful control linked to conscience development, empathy, and low aggression. o Protective Factors:  Low negative emotionality and high sociability may act as protective factors.  Sociability helps children generate support in stressful situations.  Temperament Flexibility: o Temperament is not as fixed as once believed. o Longitudinal study: Stability found, but changes also possible across childhood. o Environmental factors, such as caregiving quality and stable family relationships, can influence temperament.  Goodness-of-Fit: o Goodness-of-Fit Concept: Compatibility between children’s temperaments and their environment, especially with parents' temperament and child-rearing practices. o Optimal development occurs when temperament and environment are in tune. o Incompatibility may lead to problematic behaviour. o Difficult children may develop behavioural issues if not supported by responsive caregiving. o Responsive, attentive caregiving can minimize negative effects in difficult babies.

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* Refers to the unique set of traits and characteristics individuals believe are true about themselves. * Represents an individual's overarching view of themselves, answering "Who am I?" * Influences cognitive, social, and emotional development. * Considered a key factor in what makes humans unique (Bjorklund et al., 2018). Development of Self-Concept in Infants: * Initially influenced by Freud and Piaget’s theories: o Freud: Babies initially have no separateness, with a symbiotic relationship between baby and mother. o Piaget: Sense of self develops around 12-18 months when object permanence starts to develop. * Anderson (2011): Self-concept begins after children become aware of themselves as distinct physical entities. * Some psychologists believe infants have an innate sense of separateness (Harter, 2006). Components of Self-Concept: * Subjective Self ("I"): The inherent feeling of "I exist." * Objective Self ("me" and "mine"): Known qualities such as physical characteristics, temperament, and social skills. * Emotional Self: The ability to understand and regulate one's emotions. Early Development of Self-Awareness: * Infants' first task is to coordinate information about their actions and their effects.

Answer 44

* Self-Agency: o Infants recognize that their actions lead to predictable reactions in others (e.g., smiling, crying, or touching a toy). o Basis of self-efficacy laid in the first year (Bandura). * Object Permanence: o Development of object permanence and ability to differentiate familiar from unfamiliar persons/objects (around 9-12 months). o Recognizing stable and permanent entities leads to awareness of self as a separate entity. * Self-Recognition: o Ability to recognize oneself in a mirror or photo begins around 15–18 months. - Self-Description:  Between 18–30 months, children begin to describe themselves using neutral or evaluative terms (e.g., "small" or "naughty"). - Emotional Self-Awareness:  Developing understanding and regulation of emotions.  Early regulation through parent comfort and intervention.  Internalization of behavioural limitations and regulatory rules leads to impulse control.  Between 15–24 months, self-conscious emotions like jealousy and empathy emerge.  True self-awareness develops by the end of the second year, marked by emotions like pride and embarrassment.

Answer 45

* Cognitive Development: Maturation of brain areas (Lou et al., 2017). * Social Interaction: o Increased demand for autonomy and ownership of objects ("me," "mine"). o Consistent, loving interaction with caregivers supports positive self-concept development. * Cultural Factors: o Self-awareness may develop more rapidly in individualistic cultures compared to collectivist cultures. o Individualistic Cultures: Parents encourage self-awareness and assertiveness. o Collectivist Cultures: Parents focus on sensitivity to others and respect for elders (Sigelman et al., 2018). o Study Example: - In individualistic/urban cultures (Germany, India), toddlers recognized themselves in mirrors by 18-19 months. - In collectivist/rural cultures (India, Cameroon), fewer toddlers recognized themselves. - Maternal responsiveness to the infant as an individual was linked to self-recognition.

Answer 46

* Social development refers to an individual's relationship with others. * The first social relationship is usually with the parents Attachment  Definition of Attachment: o Refers to strong emotional bonding between individuals (e.g., relatives, friends, partners). o Most commonly refers to the bond between infants and their primary caregiver(s). o Ensures infants stay close to caregivers when feeling threatened.  Functions of Attachment: o Helps children interpret and make sense of experiences through early caregiver interactions. o Provides a sense of internal security and confidence in self and others. o Can be influenced or disrupted over time by environmental, neurophysiological, and cognitive changes (Karakas et al., 2019; Meins, 2017).  Psychoanalytic Theories of Attachment: o Freud and Spitz: Believed attachment forms through oral satisfaction (e.g., feeding). o Harry Harlow (1958):  Conducted famous study with rhesus monkeys and surrogate "mothers" (wire vs. cloth).  Monkeys preferred the cloth mother for comfort, not the wire mother that provided food.  When frightened, monkeys clung to the cloth mother for emotional security.  Concluded that comfort, warmth, and softness are more crucial than food in forming attachment.  Also found that social interaction is essential for normal social and sexual development.  Erik Erikson’s Theory: o First year of life is critical for forming attachment. o Stage is known as trust vs. mistrust. o Trust forms when infants experience physical comfort and minimal fear. o Responsive and sensitive parenting lays the foundation for strong attachment bonds.

Answer 47

(a) The Development of Attachment John Bowlby, a British psychiatrist, developed the attachment theory after observing the emotional effects of separation on children during World War II. He proposed that children form bonds with a primary caregiver, which helps them feel secure. Attachment forms in four stages: 1. Pre-attachment (0–2/3 months): Babies respond to anyone; they smile and are comforted by strangers and caregivers alike. 2. 3. 4. Attachment-in-the-making (3–6 months): Babies begin to recognise familiar people, especially their primary caregiver. They smile more and become upset when separated. Clear-cut attachment (6 months–2 years): Babies show strong attachment, follow caregivers, and protest when separated. Reciprocal relationship (from 2 years): As babies grow cognitively and socially, they influence caregiver behaviour to meet their needs.

Answer 48

Mary Ainsworth studied how secure the bond between child and caregiver is. She developed the Strange Situation Test, observing babies’ reactions to separations and reunions with their mothers. She identified three main attachment styles, later expanded to four: 1. Secure attachment (65%): Baby explores when mother is present, is distressed when she leaves, and happy when she returns. 2. Avoidant attachment (20%): Baby shows little distress when mother leaves and avoids her when she returns. 3. Ambivalent/Resistant attachment (15%): Baby is anxious even before separation, extremely upset when mother leaves, and reacts with both closeness and anger upon return. 4. Disorganised attachment: Baby shows confusing, fearful behaviour; may approach and then avoid the mother. Often seen in high-stress or neglectful environments. Culture affects attachment: For example, German children may appear more avoidant (independence is valued), and Japanese children more ambivalent (dependence is encouraged). African studies show some children are more comfortable with strangers due to cultural exposure. Importantly, these categories do not indicate good vs. bad attachment but reflect different cultural adaptations. For example, secure-base behaviour (seeking comfort from a caregiver) is seen across all cultures.

Answer 49

Healthy attachment is shaped by several factors: 1. Attachment-seeking behaviours (crying, smiling, clinging) encourage caregiver responses. Warm, responsive caregivers help babies develop secure bonds. 2. Caregiver personality: Mothers who are affectionate and responsive tend to have securely attached children. 3. Infant temperament: A baby’s nature affects the relationship. A ‘difficult’ baby may cause strain, but if there's a good fit between the baby's temperament and the caregiver’s expectations, attachment can still be secure. 4. Working mothers: Work does not harm attachment if the mother has good family support and a healthy relationship with the child. Stress, guilt, and poor support can negatively affect attachment. 5. Psychosocial factors: Poverty, trauma, and lack of support may reduce a caregiver’s ability to bond with their child. 6. Parental mental health: Depression or substance abuse can impair attachment. 7. COVID-19: Mask-wearing and social distancing may interfere with infants' ability to form secure attachments due to limited face-to-face interaction.

Answer 50

(a) The Impact of Secure Attachment Many psychologists believe that secure attachment in infancy leads to better academic, emotional, and social outcomes later in life (Groh et al., 2019; Sigelman et al., 2018). 1. Academic and Cognitive Functioning  Children with secure attachment are described as curious, motivated, and eager to learn.  They tend to have larger vocabularies and better problem-solving skills.  Studies show they perform better in school and have higher IQs by middle childhood (West et al., 2013).  There is also some evidence that secure attachment may protect against cognitive decline and dementia in adulthood (Walsh et al., 2019). 2. Emotional Functioning  Securely attached children are better at managing their emotions, which protects them from emotional and behavioural problems.  In contrast, insecurely attached children may react with anxiety, fear, or anger even in normal situations.  Over time, these emotional struggles can lead to depression or anxiety disorders (Fuchshuber et al., 2019). 3. Social Functioning  Securely attached children are more sociable, popular, and able to form positive relationships.  They are sensitive to others’ feelings, can initiate play, and show strong communication and social skills.  Early close bonds prepare children for the intimacy of friendships.

Answer 51

Although attachment theory is widely accepted, it has received some criticism, especially regarding how predictive it really is.  Elizabeth Meins (2017) argued that there is little strong evidence showing that early attachment predicts later development. Her view sparked debate — some agreed, while others felt she was too dismissive of the role of attachment. Key Criticisms of Attachment Theory: 1. Attachment is just one factor o Many things influence a child’s development — secure attachment is helpful, but not the only path to well-being. o Not all maltreated children have poor attachment, and not all children from ideal homes have secure attachment. 2. Resilience is often ignored o Many attachment theories overlook children’s ability to recover from poor relationships. o Insecurely attached children are not doomed — they can still thrive under better circumstances later on. 3. Correlational research o Most studies show a link, not a cause-and-effect relationship. o Later adjustment problems may be due to ongoing poor parenting, not just early attachment. 4. Attachment can change o A child’s attachment can shift due to life changes like divorce or a caregiver’s depression. o A child can form secure attachments with others, like a father, grandparent, or sibling, which may offset the effects of insecure attachment to the mother. o Positive changes in a caregiver’s life can also lead to improved attachment. 5. Conceptual and measurement issues o There is no single definition of attachment, making it hard to compare studies. o It is unclear how attachment differs from other close relationships, and measurement methods vary.

Answer 52

The role of the father * Previously, seen as substitute for the mother * Babies do develop strong relationship with father * Most of the time with the mother is spent feeding and nurturing, while most of the time with the father is spent playing. * Fathers are also more spontaneous and more inclined towards physical contact. Fathers often do unusual and unexpected things that babies find exciting. From these interactions, the child may develop further capacities and skills * Fathers are powerful attachment figures who can have a powerful influence on their children’s social and emotional development o Young adults whose fathers were sensitive in their early play interactions exhibit secure models of attachment in their later relationships, while fathers' low-sensitivity play is related to children's behaviour problems at a later stage o Fathers can advance the language skills of their children (Teufl et al., 2019), while a close attachment with the father can also help daughters to overcome loneliness * Quality of father-child relationship = NB * A good father should show affection for his children, stay near them, and assist the mother when her workload is heavy The role of other caregivers * Research among societies in Africa and India show children have numerous caregivers and form close emotional bonds with a number of people * Despite variety of attachment bonds, children display healthy emotional development * Allo-parenting: Social system in which other members of the society help to support children who are not their own * The current view is that the dyadic attachment model (i.e., mother-child attachment) seriously limits the inclusion of the (cultural) variation that occurs in forming attachment

Answer 53

Stranger anxiety is a normal fear that some babies show when they see or are approached by strangers.  For example: a baby might cry or pull away when a stranger picks them up or talks to them — even if nothing scary has happened. Timeline:  Starts: Around 8 months  Most intense: Between 10 and 18 months  Usually fades: By 24 months (Consolini, 2020) Even though this fear is common, not all babies experience it — and some show it more strongly than others.

Answer 54

 Babies are more anxious around strangers when their mother is not present.  They are less anxious in familiar places, especially when held by their mother.  If given time to adjust, babies may eventually accept the stranger.  Babies usually react more positively to other children than to adults.  Babies with secure attachment tend to show less stranger anxiety.  Babies raised by multiple caregivers usually have less stranger anxiety than those raised mainly by one.  In some cultures, babies are taught early to be friendly to strangers, and they may not show anxiety at all.

Answer 55

Different theories explain why babies feel this fear: 1. Cognitive Viewpoint o Babies notice that the stranger looks different from people they know. o They can’t fit the stranger into their mental idea (“schema”) of familiar faces. o This mismatch creates confusion and fear. 2. Behavioural Viewpoint o Babies feel forced to react when they see an unfamiliar face. o With a familiar face, they know how to respond (like smiling). o With a stranger, they don’t know what to do, which causes distress. 3. Contingency Viewpoint o Babies expect certain behaviours from familiar people. o With strangers, the interaction is unpredictable, so they feel they’ve lost control, which leads to fear. 4. Evolutionary Viewpoint o Stranger anxiety is seen as a built-in survival system. o It helps protect babies by keeping them away from the unfamiliar, which could be dangerous. 5. Cultural Viewpoint o In some traditional African cultures, stranger anxiety is seen as a sign the stranger is bad or bewitched. 6. Genetic Viewpoint o Genetics may play a role. o Identical twins show more similar levels of stranger anxiety than non-identical twins (Brooker et al., 2013).

Answer 56

Separation anxiety is the fear and distress babies feel when their mother, father, or caregiver leaves, even if it’s just for a short time (like stepping out of the room). NB: It’s different from long separations like divorce or hospitalisation. Timeline:  Starts: Around 8 to 12 months  Peaks: Around 14 to 16 months  Fades: Between 20 and 24 months Even though separation anxiety disappears as babies grow, older children, teens, and adults can sometimes feel similar emotions when away from home or loved ones. This is often called homesickness (Nauta et al., 2019). NB: This is about normal separation anxiety in babies. NB: It’s not the same as separation anxiety disorder, which is a mental health condition seen in older children or adults — where anxiety lasts much longer and may include depression. Reactions Depend on the Situation  Babies get more upset when left in an unfamiliar place.  If they are left in a familiar environment, or with a familiar person, their reaction is often less intense.  This shows that babies may be reacting more to the unfamiliar environment than to the actual separation. The greater the difference between what the baby knows and the new environment, the stronger the reaction. Why Does Separation Anxiety Happen? One major reason is the baby’s growing cognitive ability — especially their understanding of object permanence.  Object permanence means the baby knows that people and things still exist even when they can't see them.  So, when a caregiver leaves, the baby realises they are still somewhere else — and wants to be with them.  This usually happens because the baby has formed a strong attachment bond with that caregiver.

Answer 57

 Socialisation = learning to conform to moral standards, role expectations, and accepted behaviour of a community.  Becomes more relevant as infants gain mobility, explore more, and develop problem- solving abilities.  Parents are primary agents of socialisation, especially during the second year of life. Changing Parental Roles  1st year: Parents (especially mothers) play a nurturing/supportive role.  2nd year: Shift to teacher role, expecting more independence and responsibility from the child. Three Main Parental Socialisation Strategies 1. 2. 3. Direct teaching: e.g., how to eat or dress. Modelling: Children copy parental behaviour. Controlling environment: e.g., choosing neighbourhoods, arranging social interactions. Children Are Active Participants  Children are not passive — their temperament and personality influence how they are socialised.  Genetics may also play a role (Kochanska et al., 2015).

Answer 58

Techniques Used by Parents:  Positive reinforcement: Praise, hugs, smiles.  Induction: Explaining rules and reasoning.  Scaffolding: Supporting children to do more than they can alone.  Power assertion: Physical punishment or removing privileges.  Withdrawal of love: Ignoring or being cold (NOT recommended). Positive reinforcement, induction, and scaffolding = lead to better behaviour. Power assertion or withdrawal of love = can lead to fear or avoidance. Toilet Training  Should start only when the child is biologically ready: o Can sit upright o Understands simple instructions o Can communicate o Shows signs of muscle control  Ideal age: 20–24 months (some ready at 18 months or older)  Girls usually complete training 2–3 months earlier than boys. Parents should be relaxed and supportive, not harsh. Toilet training should NOT become a power struggle. Tips for Successful Toilet Training:  Watch for readiness cues, not just age.  Use positive reinforcement.  Let the child feel pride in learning a new skill.  Stay calm if the child resists or makes mistakes. Thumb Sucking (Box 3.14)  Natural for self-soothing, even before birth.  Most children outgrow it naturally.  No proven dental damage unless it continues past age 5–7 or when permanent teeth appear.  Parents should be calm and sensitive in their response to it. Weaning  Gradual switch from one food type to another (e.g., breast to bottle, liquid to solids).  Usually starts at 6 months, but developmental signs are more important than age: o Can sit without support o Holds head upright and steady o Doubled birth weight o Shows interest in parents’ food  Can take weeks or months, and can be emotionally challenging for both parent and baby.

Answer 59

Sibling Relationships and Infant Development  Most children globally have at least one sibling, and sibling relationships often last longer than any other relationship in a person’s life (Howe, 2019; Shephard et al., 2021).  Siblings may play a crucial role in an infant's attachment formation. o In a variation of the Strange Situation Test, upset babies (10–20 months) often turned to their siblings (as young as 4 years old) for comfort (Steward, 1983). o Older preschool children may serve as emotional support during stressful situations when parents are absent.  Siblings can be more powerful socialisation agents than parents in some contexts. o One-year-olds spend as much time with siblings as with mothers and more than with fathers. o In some cultures, older siblings act as caregivers and are expected to teach younger siblings (Nsamenang, 2011).

Answer 60

 Infants are typically weaned between 2–3 years.  Weaning may occur when: o The child is considered old enough. o The mother is ready to have another child.  Cultural practices during weaning: o No sexual intercourse allowed while breastfeeding in some groups. o Unpleasant substances, like pepper, rubbed on nipples. o Use of herbs mixed in food or worn around the neck. o Mothers may bind their breasts with cloth to deny access. o Some refuse to give in to the child’s demands. o In rare cases, the child is sent to live with grandparents.

Answer 61

 A new sibling can be upsetting, especially for younger children (Chen et al., 2018).  Effects include: o Reduced attention from parents, especially mothers. o Regressive behaviours (thumb sucking, wetting pants, baby talk, asking for a bottle/dummy). o Emotional responses like withdrawal, silence, refusal to play. o Aggression towards the baby (hitting, pinching, or asking for the baby to be returned).  Positive reactions also occur: o Pride in being the older sibling. o Feeling “grown-up” and independent. o Quick adaptation leading to disappearance of negative behaviours.  Parenting style matters: o Secure attachment and warmth toward all children promote positive sibling interactions (Van Berkel et al., 2015). o Fathers can help by engaging more with older children. o Mothers can help by reinforcing the “big kid” identity and involving older children in caring for the baby. o Quality time and gentle discouragement of jealousy/aggression are key.

Answer 62

 Peers are companions of the same age/developmental level and interact as equals.  Peer relationships differ from parent-child interactions: o Parents transmit social rules using authority (dominant-subordinate). o Peers teach compromising, cooperation, and competition as equals. o Peers offer feedback on academic, social, and emotional skills.  Peer relationships evolve with age and development: o Early peer networks are small, but grow in size and importance with entry into daycare and school. o Social, language, and cognitive skills help expand these networks. Stages of Peer Interaction in Infancy (Davis, 2015) 1. Object-centred phase: o Interaction is focused on shared toys. o Conflicts often arise over the toy. 2. Response-eliciting phase: o Babies try to provoke a reaction (e.g., offering a toy). 3. Role-exchange phase: o Babies take turns in activities (e.g., giving and receiving toys).

Answer 63

 Infants and toddlers who engage in complex play show greater competence in later childhood.  Mental disorders in infancy include: o Reactive Attachment Disorder: emotionally withdrawn behaviour toward caregivers (APA, 2013). o Issues with crying, sleep, feeding, aggression.  Mental health issues are often unrecognized due to: o Lack of awareness. o Difficulty in diagnosis.  Rates of mental health disorders in infants are similar to those in older children/adolescents.  Infancy is a vulnerable stage for brain and behavioural development, making early trauma impactful.