Chapter 3

Question 1

What is the dispositional domain?

Answer 1

It concerns those aspects of personality that are stable over time, are relatively consistent over situations and make people different from each other.

Question 2

How is stability addressed in dispositional trait theories?

Answer 2

By suggesting that traits are always present in a person but expressed differently in different ways

Question 3

What are trait-descriptive adjectives?

Answer 3

Words that describe traits, that is, attributes of a person that are reasonably characteristic of the person and perhaps even enduring over time

Question 4

How do psychologists who view traits as internal causal properties view personality?

Answer 4

For them, personality is the motor that drives behaviour. Even if they do not express the behaviour that is associated with the trait, the trait can also still be there.

Question 5

How do psychologists who view traits as purely descriptive summaries view personality?

Answer 5

They do not make any assumptions on internal causal mechanisms. Personality and traits are what are expressed, not otherwise.

Question 6

What is personality coherence?

Answer 6

Personality changes only because the precise behavioural manifestations of a trait do not remain the same, not because the personality actually differs with age.

Question 7

What is the difference between traits and states?

Answer 7

Traits represent the typical behaviour of a person over prolonged periods of time. Traits are therefore relatively insensitive to situational contexts. States, on the other hand, vary across time and situations, and can therefore be regarded as within- subject variations of behaviour.

Question 8

What is the act frequency approach?

Answer 8

The act frequency approach starts with the notion that traits are categories of acts. Therefore, people have a trait if they perform a large number of those trait’s act relative to other people

Question 9

What are the three elements of the Act Frequency Approach?

Answer 9

1. Act Nomination - a procedure designed to identify which acts belong in which trait categories.
2. Prototypicality Judgement - identifying which acts are most central to, or prototypical of, each trait category.
3. Recording of Act Performance - securing information on the actual performance of individuals in their daily lives

Question 10

What are the limitations of the Act Frequency Approach?

Answer 10

1. It does not specify how much context should be included in the description of a trait-relevant act.
2. It seems applicable to overt actions, but what about failures to act and covert acts that are not directly observable

Question 11

What are the advantages of the Act Frequency Approach?

Answer 11

1. It has been especially helpful in making explicit the behavioural phenomena to which most trait terms refer
2. It has proven useful in identifying cultural similarities and differences in the behavioural manifestation of traits

Question 12

What are the three fundamental approaches to identify important traits?

Answer 12

1. Lexical approach - All traits listed and defined in the dictionary form the basis of the natural way of describing differences between people
2. Statistical approach - This
   page 55 approach uses factor analysis, or similar statistical procedures, to identify major personality traits.
3. Theoretical approach - With this method, researchers rely on theories to identify important traits.

Question 13

What are the two clear criteria for identifying important traits according to the lexical approach?

Answer 13

1. Synonym frequency - if an attribute has not merely one or two trait adjectives to describe it but, rather, six, eight or nine words, then it is a more important dimension of individual difference.
2. Cross-cultural universality - the more important is an individual difference in human transactions, the more languages will have a term for it

Question 14

What is factor analysis in the statistical approach?

Answer 14

Factor analysis essentially identifies groups of items that covary but tend not to covary with other groups of items. Identifying clusters of personality items that covary provides a means for determining which personality variables have some common property.

Question 15

What is the theory of sociosexual orientation according to the theoretical strategy?

Answer 15

According to the theory, men and women will pursue one of two alternative sexual relationship strategies. The first entails seeking a single committed relationship characterized by monogamy and tremendous investment in children. The second sexual strategy is characterized by a greater degree of promiscuity, more partner switching and less investment in children.

Question 16

What is Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Personality?

Answer 16

The model is based on supertraits that are highly heritable and had a psychophysiological foundation:
1. Extraversion– Introversion
2. Neuroticism–Emotional Stability
3. Psychoticism
There are also narrower traits of each of these supertraits that are components of them. But even lower than those traits are habitual acts and even lower are specific acts.

Question 17

What are the two biological underpinnings in Eysenck’s personality system?

Answer 17

1. Heritability - they hold a moderate correlation with traits
2. Identifiable physiological substrate - where one can identify properties in the brain and central nervous system that correspond to the traits and are presumed to be part of the causal chain that produces those traits.

Question 18

What are the limitations of Eysenck’s Personality Model?

Answer 18

1. Many other personality traits also show moderate heritability, not just extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism.
2. Eysenck would only consider something a trait if it had significant biological underpinnings to it.

Question 19

What is Cattell’s Taxonomy of the 16 Personality Factor System?

Answer 19

Cattell viewed factor analysis as a powerful tool and thought that traits should present no matter how they are measures (observationally or self-report). However, his work could not be replicated decreasing validity.

Question 20

What is the Circumplex Taxonomies of Personality?

Answer 20

Wiggins, a founder of the circumplex taxonomy, started with the lexical assumption of personality and argued that trait terms specify different kinds of ways in which individuals differ. One was interpersonal traits which were defined by a status-love axis.

Question 21

What is the Five-factor Model?

Answer 21

A model composing of 5 broad traits known as extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability and openness-intellect. It combines the lexical and statistical approach.

Question 22

What are some criticisms for the Big Five?

Answer 22

1. There are likely more factors instead of just the 5 such as religiosity and spirituality.
2. HEXACO may also be relevant with an additional honesty-humility component
3. It describes personality but does not explain it

Question 23

What are alternative approaches to the Big Five using the lexical and statistical approaches?

Answer 23

Personality-descriptive nouns. Ones where nouns such as a dumbbell are used to describe someone, such as a dumbass.