Chapter 3

Question 1

(Hypothetical) constructs

Answer 1

Hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory.

Question 2

Theory

Answer 2

A set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behavior. Theories help organize and unify different observations of the behavior and its relationship with other variables. A good theory generates predictions about the behavior.

Question 3

Operational definition

Answer 3

A procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly. An OD specifies a measurement procedure (a set of operations) for measuring an external, observable behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and a measurment of the hypothetical construct.

Question 4

Validity

Answer 4

The degree to which the measurement process measures the variable it claims to measure.

Question 5

Face validity

Answer 5

Does the measurement technique look like it measures the variable that it claims to measure? Face validity is based on subjective judgment.

Question 6

Concurrent validity

Answer 6

When scores obtained from a new measurement technique are directly related to the scores obtained from another, better-established procedure for measuring the same variable.

Question 7

Predictive validity

Answer 7

When the measurements of a construct accurately predict behavior (according to the theory).

Question 8

Construct validity

Answer 8

The scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself. It is based on many research studies that use the same measurement procedure.

Question 9

Convergent validity

Answer 9

A strong relationship between scores is obtained by two (or more) different methods of measuring the same constuct.

Question 10

Divergent validity

Answer 10

Demonstrated by showing little or no relationship between the measurements of two different constructs.

Question 11

Reliabilty

Answer 11

The stability or consistency of a measurement. If the same individuals are measured under the same conditions, it should produce (nearly) identical results.

Question 12

Successive measurements: Test-retest reliability

Answer 12

Established by comparing the scores obtained from two successive measurements of the same individuals and calculating a correlation between the two sets of scores.
If alternate forms of the measuring instrument are used for two measurements, it is called parallel-forms reliability.

Question 13

Simultaneous measurements: Inter-rater reliability

Answer 13

The degree of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors.

Question 14

Internal consistency: Split-half reliability

Answer 14

Obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a seperate score for each half, and then calculating the degree of consistency between the two scores for a group of participants.

Question 15

Scale of measurement (definition)

Answer 15

In general terms, measurement is a procedure for classifying individuals into categories. These categories are called SoM.

Question 16

The scales of measurement (the four types)

Answer 16

The nominal scale, the ordinal scale, the interval scale and the ratio scale.

Question 17

The nominal scale

Answer 17

The categories represent qualitative differences in the variable measured (such as college major, race, occupation etc.). This scale allows us to determine whether two individuals are the same or different, but they do not permit any quantative comparison.

Question 18

The ordinal scale

Answer 18

Often, an ordinal scale consists of a series of ranks (1st, 2nd, 3rd or XS, S, M etc.). The categories form an ordened sequence which means there is a directional relationship between the categories. Ordinal measurements do not allow us to determine the magnitude of difference.

Question 19

The interval scale

Answer 19

The categories are organized sequentially, all categories are the same size (time in seconds, weight in pounds, temperature etc.) Since the categories are the same size, it is possible to determine the distance between two points on the scale.
The interval scale has an arbitrary zero point. The value of 0 is assigned to a particular location on the scale. The value 0 does not mean there is a total absence of the variable being measured (e.g. 0 degrees Celcius).

Question 20

The ratio scale

Answer 20

The categories are organized sequentially, all categories are the same size (time in seconds, weight in pounds, temperature etc.) Since the categories are the same size, it is possible to determine the distance between two points on the scale.
The ratio scale is characterized by zero point that is not an arbitrary location. Instead, the value 0 on a ratio scale is a meaningful point representing none, a complete absence.
Because of this, we can measure the distance from a point from zero. This makes it possible to compare measurements in terms of ratios.

Question 21

Three modalities (types) of measurement

Answer 21

1. self-report
2. physiological
3. behavioral

Question 22

Ceiling effect

Answer 22

The clustering of scores at the high end of a measurement scale, allowing little to no possibility of increases in value.

Question 23

Floor effect

Answer 23

The clustering of scores on the low end of a measurement scale, allowing little to no possibility of decreases in value.

Question 24

Artifact

Answer 24

A nonnatural feature accidentally introduced into something being observed, which may influence or distort measurement.

Question 25

Experimenter bias

Answer 25

When measurements obtained in a study are influenced by the experimenter’s expectations or personal beliefs regarding the outcome of the study.

Question 26

Single-blind

Answer 26

When the researcher does not know the predicted outcome of a research study.

Question 27

Double-blind

Answer 27

Both the researcher and participants are unaware of the predicted outcome of a research study.

Question 28

Demand characteristics

Answer 28

Refers to any of the potential cues or features of a study that (1) suggest to the participant what the purpose of the hypothesis is and (2) influence the partcipants to respond or behave in a certain way.

Question 29

Reactivity

Answer 29

Occurs when participants modify their natural behavior in response to the fact that they are participating in a research study or the knowledge that they are being measured

Question 30

Subject role behaviors

Answer 30

1. the good subject role - participants that have identified the hypothesis and try to respond to support the investigator’s hypothesis
2. the negavistic subject role - participants that have identified the hypothesis and try to act contrary to the investigator’s hypothesis
3. the apprehensive subject role - participants that try to respond or act in a socially desirable fashion rather than responding truthfully
4. the faithful subject role - participants that attempt to follow instructions well and avoid acting on any suspicions they have about the purpose of the study

Question 31

Laboratory

Answer 31

Any setting that is obviously devoted to the discipline of science.

Question 32

Field

Answer 32

A field setting is a place that the participant or subject percieves as a natural envorinment.