Chapter 2_Overview of the Scientific Method

Question 1

Research Literature

Answer 1

A collection of published scholarly work that provides a comprehensive overview of a particular research area, including theories, findings, and discussions on various topics.

Question 2

Professional Journals

Answer 2

Peer-reviewed publications where researchers publish original research articles, reviews, and theoretical papers relevant to a specific academic field.

Question 3

Empirical Research Reports

Answer 3

Articles that describe original research studies, including details on the research question, methodology, data analysis, and conclusions drawn from the results.

Question 4

Meta-Analysis

Answer 4

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to identify overall trends and determine the strength of the evidence.

Question 5

Review Articles

Answer 5

Papers that summarize the current state of research on a particular topic by synthesizing findings from multiple studies rather than presenting new data.

Question 6

Double-Blind Peer Review

Answer 6

A process in which both the authors and reviewers remain anonymous to each other to reduce biases during the review of scholarly articles submitted for publication.

Question 7

A Scientific Theory

Answer 7

A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is based on a body of evidence and has withstood rigorous testing.

Question 8

A Scientific Hypothesis

Answer 8

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory that guides research by suggesting what researchers expect to find in their study.

Question 9

Zajonc’s Theory of Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition (1965)

Answer 9

A theory suggesting that the presence of others enhances performance on simple or well-learned tasks (social facilitation) but impairs performance on complex or new tasks (social inhibition).

Question 10

Hypothetico-Deductive Method

Answer 10

A systematic approach to scientific research where researchers formulate hypotheses, deduce logical consequences, and test these through observation and experimentation.

Question 11

Falsifiable

Answer 11

A property of a scientific hypothesis or theory that means it can be disproven by empirical evidence.

Question 12

A Variable

Answer 12

Any factor, trait, or condition that can vary or be manipulated, controlled, or measured in research.

Question 13

A Quantitative (Continuous) Variable

Answer 13

A variable that can take on an infinite number of values within a given range, such as age, height, or weight.

Question 14

A Categorical Variable

Answer 14

A variable that categorizes or groups data into distinct categories or labels without any natural order, such as gender or type of therapy.

Question 15

Operational Definition

Answer 15

A clear, precise, and measurable definition of a variable used in a study, specifying how it will be observed and measured.

Question 16

Population

Answer 16

The entire group of individuals or instances that researchers are interested in studying.

Question 17

Sample

Answer 17

A subset of the population selected to participate in a research study, intended to represent the larger group.

Question 18

Experimental Research

Answer 18

A research method that involves manipulating one variable to determine if it causes changes in another variable, establishing cause-and-effect relationships.

Question 19

Independent Variable

Answer 19

The variable that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Question 20

Dependent Variable

Answer 20

The variable that is measured or observed in a study, which is expected to be influenced by the independent variable.

Question 21

Extraneous Variables

Answer 21

Variables other than the independent variable that might affect the dependent variable if not controlled.

Question 22

Confounds

Answer 22

Variables that systematically vary with the independent variable, potentially leading to incorrect conclusions about the cause of changes in the dependent variable.

Question 23

Non-Experimental Research

Answer 23

Research that examines relationships between variables without manipulating them, often used when experimentation is not feasible.

Question 24

Laboratory Study

Answer 24

Research conducted in a controlled, indoor environment where variables can be carefully managed.

Question 25

Field Study

Answer 25

Research conducted in a real-world or natural setting where variables are observed rather than controlled.

Question 26

Internal Validity

Answer 26

The extent to which a study can establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables, with minimal influence from confounding factors.

Question 27

External Validity

Answer 27

The extent to which research findings can be generalized to other settings, populations, or times beyond the study.

Question 28

Descriptive Statistics

Answer 28

Statistical techniques used to summarize and describe the characteristics of a set of data.

Question 29

The Range

Answer 29

A measure of variability that represents the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data set.

Question 30

The Standard Deviation

Answer 30

A measure of variability that indicates the average distance of scores from the mean, showing how spread out the data points are.

Question 31

The Variance

Answer 31

The average of the squared deviations from the mean, indicating how much scores differ from the average score.

Question 32

The Mode

Answer 32

The most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Question 33

The Mean

Answer 33

The arithmetic average of a set of scores, calculated by adding all scores and dividing by the number of scores.

Question 34

The Median

Answer 34

The middle score in a data set when the scores are arranged in order, representing the 50th percentile.

Question 35

A Correlation Coefficient

Answer 35

A numerical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, typically ranging from -1 to +1.

Question 36

Inferential Statistics

Answer 36

Statistical methods used to draw conclusions about a population based on data from a sample, including hypothesis testing and confidence intervals.

Question 37

A Statistically Significant Effect

Answer 37

An observed effect in a study that is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone, typically evaluated using a p-value threshold (e.g., p < .05).

Question 38

Type I Error

Answer 38

Incorrectly rejecting a true null hypothesis, concluding that there is an effect when there is none (false positive).

Question 39

Type II Error

Answer 39

Failing to reject a false null hypothesis, concluding that there is no effect when there actually is one (false negative).