Chapter 28: The Affluent Society Flashcards
Economic Growth (1945 - 1960)
took place between 1945 and 1960
unemployment under 5%, gross national product grew by 250%
caused by government spending in schools, housing, welfare, etc. and military spending for the Korean War
baby boom
importance: contributed to increased consumer demand and expanding economic growth, growth which had put US citizens at the highest standard of living of any society in history of the world
baby boom began during the war and peaked in 1957
national population rose 20% from 1950 to 1960
“sunbelt” (modern West)
by the 1960’s, the west’s population expanded, cities boomed, industrial economy flourished
pre WWII - the West had been appendage of the East (providing agriculture, raw materials), but by the 1960’s, some parts had become most important industrial and cultural centers of the nation
this was result of 1. federal spending and investment in dams, highways 2. state governments investing in universities (The UC system) 3. migrants come for warm climate
Keynesian economics
British economist John Maynard Keynes had argued as early as 1920’s that by varying the flow of government spending and taxation and managing the supply of currency, the government could stimulate the economy to cure recession and dampen growth to prevent inflation
by mid 1950’s, it became a fundamental article of faith, and Keynesian economics was used in 1963 when Lyndon Johnson put it to use and it worked
importance: reflected the newfound national confidence in the economy, in contrast to the doubt about the viability of capitalism during the depression.
“escalator clause”
a clause in a lease or contract that guarantees a change in the agreement price once a particular factor beyond control of either party affecting the value has been determined. An important example of this is a contract that adjusts for inflation
1948 - Walter Reuther, president of the United Automobile Workers, (union advocate), obtained a contract from GM with a built in escalator clause
by mid 1950’s, factory wages in all industries had risen substantially
“postwar contract”
by early 1950’s - new kind of relationship between workers and employers known as postwar contract
workers in large unionized industries receiving increases in wages and benefits, in return, the unions agreed to refrain from raising other issues such as the voice/opinions of workers, making strikes less frequent
AFL-CIO
a merge between the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations, ending 22 year rivalry in 1955
importance: economic success of 1950’s helped pave way for reunification of labor movement
hydrogen bomb & missiles
In 1952, US detonated the first hydrogen bomb
hydrogen bomb derives power from fusion (joining of lighter atomic elements with heavier ones), not fission (splitting of atoms)
this development gave impetus to a stalled scientific project in both the US and USSR - the effort to develop unmanned rockets and missiles capable of carrying new weapons, which were not suitable for delivery by airplanes, to their targets
US developed a new generation of missile, known as Minuteman, with range of several thousand miles, became basis of US atomic weapons arsenal
US also developed missile capable of being carried and fired by submarine - named Polaris
Sputnik
1957 - name of the earth-orbiting satellite that the USSR put into outer space
origins of US space program traced to this event
importance: US reacted to this Soviet achievement as a US failure, and triggered US improvement in scientific education, more research laboratories, speedier development of US’s own exploration.
1958 - US launched its first satellite, Explorer
National Aeronautics and Space Admin. (NASA)
tbd
Federal Highway Act of 1956
appropriated $25 billion for highway construction, was one of the most important alterations of the national landscape in modern history
importance of prevalence of automobile:
provided links to every major city, dramatically reduced the time necessary to travel from one place to another, made travel by automobile, truck, and bus faster than trains, resulting in steady decline of railroads
highways encouraged movement of economic activities (manufacturing) out of cities and into suburban/rural areas where land was cheaper
made it easier for families to move into homes that were far away from where they worked
created more motels, fast-food chains along highways
Levittown & suburbs
by 1960, 1/3 of nation’s population lived in suburbs
Levittowns:
William Levitt used new mass-production techniques to construct large housing development on long island
towns consisted of several thousands 2 bedroom houses, same interior, varying exteriors, treeless streets (ew), which made low-cost houses meet an enormous demand from young couples for housing
Why did so many people want to move to suburbs?
larger homes than they could afford in the cities
live in community populated by people of similar age and background, forming easier friendships
race: when black population of cities was rapidly growing, white families moved to suburbs to escape integration of urban neighborhoods and schools
suburban hierarchy:
levittowns = homes of lower-middle-class
other more affluent suburbs for wealthier families
Dr. Benjamin Spock
wrote Baby and Childcare in 1946, one of the most influential books in postwar American life
approach to raising babies was child-centered, rather than parent centered, making purpose of motherhood solely to help the children reach their full potential. mothers own physical and emotional needs are subordinate to the child’s
effect: women who could afford not to work faced pressure to remain in the home and focus on raising their child. HOWEVER, many middle class families needed 2nd income in order to keep up with consumer culture, maintain a higher standard of living. THEREFORE, women working outside the home increased in post war years despite social pressure, 1960: 1/3 of all married women were part of paid workforce.
television
most powerful medium of mass communication in 2nd half of 20th century. central to culture of postwar era.
emerged out of the radio industry. sponsors often played a direct, powerful, and continuing role in determining content of programs.
impact on American life was rapid, pervasive, profound:
replaced newspapers, magazines, radios as most important vehicle of information.
advertising, athletic events
created a common image of US ife: white, middle class, suburban (Leave it to Beaver)
reinforced gender roles (Father Knows Best)
but also conveyed other images of gritty working class, but in a warm, unthreatening way (I Love Lucy)
while it reinforced homogeneity of white middle class, it contributed to sense of alienation and powerlessness among excluded groups
recreational environmentalism
idea of traveled entered US life in 1920’s, but not until post war was vacation truly widespread (interstate highway contributed dramatically)
surge in travel visible in National Parks: traveling there for hiking, camping, fishing, hunting, but also just looking at landscape rather than recreation
fight to preserve Echo Park: against building a dam to create lake for recreation and hydroelectric power. environmental movement had been relatively quiet since the lost fight for Hetch Hetchy Valley at Yosemite (during TR’s presidency), but this fight helped rouse from slumber
1956 - Congress bowed to public pressure and blocked the project, preserving Echo Park
importance: impetus to environmental consciousness that would become so important in later decades.
The Organization Man
book written in 1956 by William H. Whyte Jr. which attempted to describe the special mentality of the worker in a large, bureaucratic setting. He claimed that self-reliance was losing place to the ability to get along and work as a team, more concern with winning approval of larger organization/community
reflected the statistic that white collar workers were outnumbering blue collar workers for 1st time in 1950’s, working in corporate settings with rigid hierarchical structures
Allen Ginsberg
wrote dark, bitter poem “Howl” in 1955 decrying “robot apartments!” invincible suburbs! skeleton treasuries! blind capitalists! demonic industries!” reflecting work of critics - poets, writers, artists known as the “beats” - of bureaucracy and middle class society in general
Elvis Presley
most famous and influential rock musicians of the 20th century
born in Mississippi and influenced by African American music of the South, he became a singer in the mid-1950’s, continued to be extraordinarily popular until death in 1977
symbol of rock n roll, of a youthful determination to push at the borders of the conventional
The Other America
1962, socialist writer Michael Harrington created this book in which he chronicled the continuing existence of poverty in the US. conditions he described were not new - only the attention he was bringing to them was.
Farmer’s experience
rural americans - steadily shrinking farm population
10% moved into the cities
most farmers who survived experienced substantial losses of income at the same time that the prices of many consumer goods rose
development of urban “ghettoes”
as white families moved from cities to suburbs, inner cities neighborhoods were home to poor, “ghettos” - due to mass migration of AA’s out of the south/countryside and into industrial cities namely Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, NY - (more than 3 million moved to N cities between 1940 and 1960)
also applied to Hispanics (Mexicans, Puerto Ricans) to Los Angeles, NY, Houston TX
why did inner-cities remain so poor in the midst of growing affluence? subject to debate…
work habits, values, family structures brought from home were poorly adapted to industrial life
the city itself - crime, violence, poverty - created culture of poverty
racism, no support for minority schools
“urban renewal”
the response to the poverty of inner cities: the effort to tear down buildings in the poorest and most degraded areas
post WWII - tore down 400,000 buildings/homes
some new buildings were better than the original, many had poor design and deteriorated rapidly into slums
Brown v. Board of Education
May 17, 1954 - Court rejected Plessy v. Ferguson which had ruled “separate but equal” facilities
the Brown decision was culmination of decades of efforts by black opponents of segregation, namely the NAACP lawyers
importance: the Brown decision didn’t end segregation; it launched a prolonged battle between federal authority and state and local gov’ts, and between racists and non-racists
Earl Warren
Chief Justice who was involved in the Topeka decision that school segregation inflicted unacceptable damage on those it affected
explained: “We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of separate but equal has no place.”
Central HS, Little Rock
an example of a school in Arkansas that was a part of “massive resistance” to the Brown decision, but after federal interference, admitted black students
an angry white mob blocked the entrance to the school, not allowing black students in, so president Eisenhower had to send in the National Guard to bring troops to the school to stop them
importance: the Brown decision didn’t end segregation; it launched a prolonged battle between federal authority and state and local gov’ts, and between racists and non-racists
Montgomery bus boycott
seized on Rosa Parks as a symbol of the movement
black workers who needed to commute to their jobs formed car pools to avoid using the buses, putting economic pressure on the bus company
very effective
Supreme Court decision in 1956 made bus segregation illegal, and the boycott came to a close
important result: new figure coming to prominence: local baptist, MLK
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
an interracial group founded shortly after the bus boycott and led by MLK
urged African Americans to use peace, love against hate; spread movement throughout the South
Jackie Robinson
1947 - Brooklyn Dodgers signed him as first AA to play MLB
Following this - change:
blacks establish selves in almost all prof. sports
Eisenhower completed integration of army, desegregate workforce, 1957 civil rights bill passed (weak, but was the first civil rights bill to win passage since end of Reconstruction, a signal that the gov’t was ready for the “second reconstruction”
Civil Rights Mvmt causes - Why now as opposed to earlier?
legacy of WWII - blacks who served in the military found broader view of world
growth of urban black middle class
developing for decades, flourished after the war
leaders of communities - ministers, educators - were impetus for movement
education gave more awareness of their obstacles, whereas poorer/more oppressed people couldn’t see it
TV and other pop culture
had constant reminders of how white majority lived
whites support the movement
Cold War - racial injustice was an embarrassment to Americans trying to portray their world as model
northern blacks have political influence within Democratic party; whites couldn’t ignore them
labor unions support blacks b/c they have substantial black memberships
Eisenhower’s conservatism (“middle path”)
- in the US Eisenhower had moderate policies
- abroad he continued to intensify US commitments to oppose communism
- Eisenhower appointed wealthy corporate lawyers and business execs to his cabinet
- Eisenhower continually tried to limit federal activities and encourage private enterprise
- he opposed new social service programs like health insurance
- he took few initiatives in domestic policy
Army-McCarthy hearings
Senator from Wisconsin who rose to infamy by accusing the State Department of employing communists, he conducted high-profile red-baiting hearings that damanged countless careers before he finally over-reached in 1954 when he went after the US Army. After that he was censured by Senate and died of alcoholism shortly thereafter
“massive retaliation” & “brinksmanship”
massive retaliation: term and policy coined by John Foster Dulles, Secretary of State to Eisenhower, to describe the nuclear attack that the US would launch if the Soviets tried anything too daring
the doctrines reflected Dulle’s inclination for tense confrontations, an approach he defined as “brinksmanship” - pushing the USSR to the brink of war in order to exact concessions
Ho Chi Minh
almost simultaneously with the ending of the Korean War in 1953, the US was drawn into long struggle in Vietnam, colony of France, who was facing strong opposition from nationalists led by Ho Chi Minh, a communist
Dien Bien Phu
city in Vietnam
French troops struggling in battle here, and it was clear that only US intervention could prevent the fall of French
Eisenhower refused to directly intervene with military, despite urgencies of his Secretary of state, VP Nixon, and others
Eisenhower Doctrine
US policy defending countries in Middle East from becoming communist
Israel
1948 - Israel proclaimed independence, & Truman recognized the country
creation of Israel created conflicts: Palestinian Arabs unwilling to accept displacement from their own country joined with Israel’s Arab neighbors and fought against the new state in 1948
Iran coup
US was committed to Israel, but also concerned with stability and friendliness of Arab regimes who had control of oil in the middle east
Coup: Muhammad Mossadegh, nationalist prime minister of Iran, resists presence of western corporations in his nation. US CIA joins forces with conservative Iranian military leaders to engineer a coup. Put Muhammad Reza Pahlevi in charge instead, who remained tied to US for next 25 years.
Suez crisis
Egypt develops trade relationship with USSR
to punish them, Dulles withdrew offers to assist building a dam across the Nile
Egypt (General Suez) seizes control of British canal, using income to build dam himself
1956 - French, British, Israeli forces attack Egypt but US did not support the attack, so the countries withdrew
Fidel Castro
US controlled a lot of business/land in Cuba
popular resistance to Fulgencio Batista regime in Cuba began to gather under the leadership of Fidel Castro
Jan. 1, 1959 - Castro establishes new gov’t
Castro began relations with USSR. US punished Cuba by hurting trade with them (cutting the quota) and finally US severed diplomatic relations with Castro
Castro cemented alliance with USSR
Hungarian Revolution (1956)
Hungarian citizens were under the “iron curtain” of SV but sought democratic reforms
USSR quickly crushed this revolution
US, Eisenhower, did not intervene - reflected his more secretive, covert policies
U-2 crisis of 1958
bad Cold War feelings reinvigorated between USSR and US.
Nikita Khrushchev (led USSR during Cold War) wanted NATO to abandon West Berlin, but of course they refused, so Khrushchev suggested that he and Eisenhower meet personally to discuss on each other’s homeland.
Khrushchev coming to US was polite, good.
1960 - Before Eisenhower left for Russia, USSR announced that they had shot down an American U-2 plane that was wrongly flying over Russia. Khrushchev was mad and disinvited Eisenhower.
Eisenhower’s farewell address
After 8 years in office, he failed to eliminate, and in some respects increased, tensions with USSR, but he had brought own sense of limits of US power: resisted military intervention in Vietnam and placed restraint on those who wanted expanded military.
1961 farewell address he warned of unwarranted influence of US military industrial complex, aka enormous American military establishment. His successors did not follow this - they argued the US must act boldly to attain its goals.
History.com: Eisenhower urged his successors to strike a balance between a strong national defense and diplomacy in dealing with the Soviet Union. He did not suggest arms reduction and in fact acknowledged that the bomb was an effective deterrent to nuclear war. However, cognizant that America’s peacetime defense policy had changed drastically since his military career, Eisenhower expressed concerns about the growing influence of what he termed the military-industrial complex.
