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a & p II unit 6 > chapter 25: metabolism > Flashcards

chapter 25: metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

what occurs when cells use enzymes & water to catabolize the chemical bonds of large organic molecules to produce monomer molecules?

A

hydrolysis

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2
Q

aerobic cellular respiration functions to catabolize oxygen and glucose into
what & what to harvest bond energy to make ATP?

A

carbon dioxide(CO2) & water (H2O)

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3
Q

there is a net gain of what ATP molecules by substrate level phosphorylation during complete aerobic cellular respiration?

A

4

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4
Q

32 ATP molecules can be made by what phosphorylation at the
Electron Transport system?

A

oxidative

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5
Q

when glucose or pyruvic acid is oxidized in complete aerobic cellular respiration,
what gets reduced?

A

NAD (becomes NADH)

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6
Q

the synthesis of glucose from something not carbohydrate is called
what?

A

glucogenesis

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7
Q

when catabolizing lipids for energy, the glycerol is converted into what for entry into decarboxylation & the citric acid cycle?

A

pyruvic acid

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8
Q

beta-oxidation of fatty acids produces what?

A

acetyl

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9
Q

how do your cells acquire linolenic acid & what do they use it for?

A

from food (seeds nuts and fish are best) ; to synthesize arachidonic acid in order to make eicosanoids

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10
Q

chylomicrons are made by the what epithelium to deliver lipids to what organ?

A

intestinal epithelium; liver

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11
Q

what are created by the liver to deliver triglycerides to the tissues, particularly adipose for storage?

A

VLDLs (very low density lipoproteins)

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12
Q

LDLs are typically increased by a diet that contains a lot of what kind of fats?

A

saturated

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13
Q

deamination of amino acids initially produces what which must be converted into urea by the liver?

A

ammonia

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14
Q

what is meant by an amino acid being an essential amino acid?

A

must be ingested, cells can’t make it (or produce it in sufficient quantity to meet needs)

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15
Q

purine bases of RNA are deaminated & excreted as what?

A

uric acid

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16
Q

glycogen reserves are found in the liver and what muscle?

A

skeletal muscle

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17
Q

neurons process only what for energy?

A

glucose

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18
Q

what’s the hormone that promotes glucose utilization during the absorptive state?

A

insulin

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19
Q

during the post-absorptive state, the liver converts amino acids and fatty acids
into what bodies to supply body cells with substrates for energy production?

A

ketone

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20
Q

during the absorptive state, growth hormones promote the absorption of amino acids & protein synthesis; what does it do during the post-absorptive state?

A

inhibits glucose use, promotes fatty acid use

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21
Q

why might you produce oddly colored urine shortly after taking a multivitamin?

A

water-soluble vitamins that are not used immediately are excreted by the kidney; some have colors (multivitamins usually contain far more of each vitamin that the body can use in a few hours)

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22
Q

a Calorie is measured as what?

A

energy needed to raise 1 kg of water 1 degree centigrade

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23
Q

a normal, healthy BMI for an average-sized person would between what range?

A

18-25

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24
Q

why is 110 degrees Fahrenheit too hot a body temperature for a human?

A

critical proteins denature, loss of homeostasis

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25
Q

what is most of the body’s heat lost by?

A

radiation

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26
Q

what is nonshivering thermogenesis?

A

elevation in metabolic rate of cells to produce heat through cellular respiration

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27
Q

what are the cytokines that initiate fever by resetting the thermostat in the hypothalamus?

A

pyrogens

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28
Q

which person is likely to lose more heat faster: someone 6 feet tall & 150 pounds or someone 4 feet tall & 150 pounds?

A

the tall thin one

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29
Q

metabolism

A

sum of all chemical reactions in body
-digestion + Absorption by GI -> monomers (building blocks) for ATP or biomolecule synthesis

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30
Q

catabolism

A

breakdown of organics
*supplies ATP & monomers to drive anabolism

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31
Q

hydrolysis (catabolism)

A

large molecules into
monomers

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32
Q

cellular respiration (catabolism)

A

oxidation of monomers in mitochondria
-40% of energy -> ATP
-60% of energy -> heat

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33
Q

anabolism

A

synthesis of new organics
-cell maintenance and repair
-growth
-formation of secretions
-nutrient reserves

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34
Q

carbohydrate anabolism

A

all carbohydrates & lactic acid can be converted to glucose

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35
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

synthesis of glucose
from a non-carbohydrate precursor, ex: glycerol, amino acids

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36
Q

functions of glucose

A

-stored as glycogen
-used to generate ATP
-to create other carbohydrates (cell membranes receptors, nucleic acids)

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37
Q

lipid catabolism (lipid metabolism)

A

-triglycerides most common
-lipolysis
-include fatty acids & glycerol

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38
Q

lipolysis (lipid catabolism -> lipid metabolism)

A

triglyceride -> glycerol + 3 fatty acids

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39
Q

glycerol (lipid catabolism -> lipid metabolism)

A

glycerol -> pyruvic acid -> citirc acid cycle
-generates 18 ATP

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40
Q

fatty acids (lipid catabolism -> lipid metabolism)

A

undergo β-oxidation to
become 2-carbon acetyl, each 2-C fragment generates 17
ATP

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41
Q

lipid metabolism

A

-lipolysis common to hepatocytes, cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle for ATP synthesis
-not possible in neurons
-not water soluble, difficult for enzymes to access
-lipolysis requires oxygen for ATP synthesis, no fermentation

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42
Q

glycolysis (aerobic cellular respiration)

A

-anaerobic in cytoplasm
- 1 glucose oxidized catabolized into 2 pyruvic acids
- 2 NADH produced by reduction of 2 NAD via oxidation of glucose
-2 ATP produced by substrate-level phosphorylation
-if no O2 pyruvic acid is reduced to lactic acid (fermentation)

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43
Q

erythrocytes (RBCs) (glycolysis)

A

glycolysis only (no mitochondria)

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44
Q

skeletal muscle (glycolysis)

A

fermentation when no O2

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45
Q

neurons & cardiac muscle (glycolysis)

A

can’t ferment, need O2, must always do complete aerobic respiration of glucose

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46
Q

decarboxylation (aerobic cellular respiration)

A

-occurs in matrix of mitochondria
-2 pyruvic acid decarboxylated & oxidized into 2 acetyl + CO A + 2 CO2 with NADH
*2 times

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47
Q

citric acid cycle/krebs cycle (aerobic cellular respiration)

A

-occurs in matrix of mitochondria
-2 acetyl + 2 oxaloacetate acids = 2 citric acids
-citric acid decarboxylated & oxidized producing 4 CO2, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2
-2 ATP generated by substrate-level phosphorylation (glucose no longer exists)

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48
Q

electron transport (aerobic cellular respiration)

A

-aerobic, occurs on cristae of mitochondria
-NADH & FADH2 (reduced during glycolysis & krebs cycle) are oxidized
-electrons (H) are passed to ETC (cytochromes), finally accepted by oxygen
-32 ATP created
-12H2O produced for oxygen waste

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49
Q

how many ATP’s will glucose make with oxygen?

A

1 glucose will produce 36 ATP in most human tissue cells

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50
Q

how many ATP’s will glucose make without oxygen?

A

1 glucose will produce 2 ATP (glycolysis & lactic acid) in human cells capable of fermentation (not neurons or cardiac muscle)

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51
Q

unsaturated fats

A

two covalent bonds (unhealthy)

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52
Q

saturated fats

A

single covalent bond (healthy)

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53
Q

lipogenesis (lipid anabolism)

A

triglycerides synthesized from cellular respiration intermediate
-glycerol from glycolysis products
-fatty acids from acetyl Co A

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54
Q

cholesterol synthesis (lipid anabolism)

A

from any saturated fat molecule

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55
Q

essential fatty acids

A

must be ingested in diet, no synthesis
a. linolenic acid
b.linoleic acid
-both used to synthesize arachidonic acid, to synthesize eicosanoids (leukotrienes & prostaglandins) for cell signaling

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56
Q

linolenic acid

A

omega 3 fatty acid

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57
Q

linoleic acid

A

omega 6 fatty acid

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58
Q

functions of lipids

A

-catabolism to generate ATP (triglycerides)
-cell membranes (phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol)
-myelin sheaths on axons
-bile salts & steroid hormones
-cell signaling molecules
-energy reserve (80% triglycerides)
-insulation & protection

59
Q

lipid transport (lipid anabolism)

A

-free fatty acids bound to albumins in blood
-other bound to proteins to form lipoproteins: soluble, bind specific receptors
-five classes

60
Q

five class of lipoproteins based on size & composition:

A

high protein content = high density
high lipid content = low density

61
Q

chylomicrons (lipoproteins class)

A

95% triglycerides, from intestinal epithelium, deliver lipids from gut to liver
-travel by lymph

62
Q

very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) (lipoprotein class)

A

triglycerides (high levels), phospholipids, cholesterol; delivers triglycerides from liver to tissue

63
Q

intermediate density lipoproteins (IDLs) (lipoprotein class)

A

VLDLs with triglycerides removed to return to liver processing

64
Q

low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) (lipoprotein class)

A

high cholesterol, low triglycerides & phospholipids, deliver cholesterol from liver to tissues (unhealthy)

65
Q

high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) (lipoprotein class)

A

equal protein & lipids (cholesterol & phospholipids), return cholesterol to liver for degradation (healthy)

66
Q

lipoprotein distribution events 1-3

A
  1. liver synthesizes VLDLs & releases them into blood
  2. triglycerides are removed in capillaries, making IDLs from VLDLs
  3. IDLs return to liver, triglycerides removed & proteins altered making LDLs from IDLs which are released to blood
67
Q

lipoprotein distribution events 4-6

A
  1. LDLs travel to peripheral tissue
  2. cells endocytose LDLs & break them down
  3. extra cholesterol diffuses out of cells & enters blood
68
Q

lipoprotein distribution events 7-9

A
  1. cholesterol binds to HDLs in blood & returns to liver
  2. HDLs in liver have cholesterol extracted to form empty HDLs, new LDLs & bile salts
  3. empty HDLs return to blood to pick up free cholesterol
69
Q

diet rich in saturated fats (animals) (cholesterol & health) ->

A

triggers synthesis of cholesterol & blocks excretion/ conversion by liver

70
Q

diet rich in non-hydrogenated unsaturated fats (plants) (cholesterol & health) ->

A

enhance excretion & conversion to bile salts

71
Q

protein metabolism

A

-amino acids usually recycled into new proteins
-when carbs & lipids lacking or amino acids are in excess, can be catabolized for ATP or stored as fat

72
Q

deamination (amino acid catabolism)

A

amino group removed requires VitB6

73
Q

amino acid catabolism (protein metabolism)

A

-deamination
-generates ammonia, toxic, converted by liver to urea, excreted in urine
-carbon chain -> Krebs cycle for ATP
-different amino acids produce different amounts of ATP

74
Q

protein starvation (amino acid catabolism)

A

catabolism difficult, inefficient & toxic, last resort for energy

75
Q

essential amino acids (amino acid anabolism)

A
  • 8 for adults, 10 for children
    -must be ingested, no synthesis
76
Q

synthesis (amino acid anabolism)

A

-12 can be synthesized using carbon backbone from other amino acids
-amination

77
Q

amination (amino acid anabolism)

A

addition of amino group

78
Q

phenylketonuria

A

lack enzyme to convert phenylalanine to tyrosine, tyrosine needed for melanin, deaminated phenylalanine level rise -> neurotoxic

79
Q

functions of proteins

A

-cell structural components
-enzymes
-hormones

80
Q

nucleic acid metabolism

A

-nucleotides usually recycled for new nucleic acids
- DNA never catabolized, only RNA under extreme conditions
-nucleotide hydrolyzed to pentose sugar, nitrogenous base & phosphate

81
Q

nucleic acid metabolism of pentose sugar, nitrogenous base & phosphate:

A

-sugar -> glycolysis for ATP
-pyrimidine bases (C, U) -> acetyl -> citric acid cycle for ATP
-purine bases (A, G) -> deaminated, excreted as uric acid, not used for ATP

82
Q

gout

A

crystal of uric acid in joints, pain & swelling

83
Q

liver (metabolic interaction-1st region for metabolism)

A

-site of metabolic regulation & control
-can break down or synthesize most molecules for use by other cells
-store glycogen reserves

84
Q

adipose (metabolic interaction- 2nd region region for metabolism)

A

stores triglycerides reserves

85
Q

skeletal muscle (metabolic interaction- 3rd region region for metabolism)

A

-stores glycogen reserves
-has contractile proteins that can be catabolized (release amino acids)

86
Q

neural tissue (metabolic interaction- 4th region region for metabolism)

A

-high energy demand but noo reserves
-requires constant supply of glucose -> oxygen

87
Q

peripheral tissues (metabolic interaction- 5th region region for metabolism)

A

-no reserves
-catabolizes a wide range of substrates

88
Q

absorptive state (pattern of metabolic state)

A

-anabolism exceeds catabolism
-occurs for ~4hr post meal while nutrients are being transported to liver then tissues
-some nutrients are immediately, some stored as reserves

89
Q

insulin (hormone involved in absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state)

A

promotes glucose uptake & utilizations by cells

90
Q

growth hormone (hormone involved in absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state)

A

promotes amino acid uptake & protein synthesis by cells

91
Q

androgens & estrogens (hormone involved in absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state)

A

promote amino acid utilization in protein synthesis

92
Q

liver tissue regulates blood glucose levels (tissue involved in absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state):

A

-removes excess glucose from blood & performs glycogenesis (formation of glycogen from glucose)
-excess glucose converted into triglycerides & converted to VLDLs for storage in adipocytes

93
Q

liver tissue when amino acids not tightly regulated (tissue involved in absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state):

A

-some absorbed for protein & enzyme synthesis
-some converted to more rare amino acids for use by body cells

94
Q

adipose tissue (tissue involved in absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state):

A

-absorb fatty acids & glycerol from blood & triglycerides from VLDLs
-absorb glucose for ATP synthesis to drive lipogenesis
-all excess nutrients converted & stored as triglycerides

95
Q

peripheral tissues (tissue involved in absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state):

A

-absorb glucose for synthesis
-absorb amino acids for protein synthesis

96
Q

post-absorptive state (pattern of metabolic state)

A

-catabolism dominates
-primary goal is to maintain glucose level to the brain

97
Q

periods when there’s no more absorption from GI, cells must rely on energy reserves (post-absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state):

A

-glycogen: liver & skeletal muscle (glucagon)
-triglycerides: adipose tissue
-proteins: muscle tissue (glucocorticoids)

98
Q

glucagon (hormone involved in post-absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state)

A

promotes release of glucose from liver

99
Q

epinephrine (hormone involved in post-absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state)

A

promotes release of glucose from liver, promotes lipolysis in adipose tissue & releases glycerol & fatty acids

100
Q

glucocorticoids (hormone involved in post-absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state)

A

inhibits use of glucose by body tissues, promotes use of fatty acids

101
Q

growth hormone (hormone involved in post-absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state)

A

complements glucocorticoids

102
Q

liver tissue (tissue involved in post-absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state):

A

-glycogenolysis to cleave glucose from glycogen & release into blood
-gluconeogenesis (glucocorticoids) to synthesize glucose from lipids
-triglyceride conversion: glycerol -> glucose & fatty acids -> acetyl -> ketone bodies

103
Q

amino acid conversion (liver tissue involved in post-absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state):

A

amino acids deaminated & converted to ketone bodies

104
Q

ketone bodies

A

released into blood, absorbed by peripheral tissues, converted to acetyl & catabolized in the citirc acid cycle

105
Q

ketosis

A

high concentration of ketone bodies will be present in all body fluids

106
Q

ketoacidosis

A

low blood pH -> death

107
Q

during starvation (post-absorptive state):

A

-ketosis
-oxaloacetic acid from citric acid cycle will be converted into glucose for brain
-acetyl & ketone bodies won’t be able to enter citric acid cycle
-ketones bodies build up & lead to ketoacidosis
-long-term nonfatal ketosis -> bone loss, kidney damage, heart disease

108
Q

adipose tissue (tissue involved in post-absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state)

A

-fat mobilization: lipolysis converts triglycerides -> glycerol + fatty acids which are released into blood
a. body cells use them for ATP synthesis
b. liver uses them for gluconeogenesis
*15-20% body fat

109
Q

skeletal muscle (tissue involved in post-absorptive state -> pattern of metabolic state):

A

catabolism of contractile proteins, release of amino acids for use by liver in gluconeogenesis & ketone body formation

110
Q

what do peripheral tissue cells do in the post-absorptive state?

A

lacking insulin stimulation, switch from glucose to ketone bodies for ATP synthesis

111
Q

balanced diet provides:

A
  1. substrates for energy (ATP) production
  2. complete proteins (essential)
  3. essential lipids
  4. nitrogen (amino acids & nucleotides)
  5. minerals
  6. vitamins
112
Q

minerals

A

inorganic ions (Ca2+, Na+)
-regulation of osmotic concentration
-physiological processes
-cofactors for enzymes
-form compunds

113
Q

vitamins

A

organic contractors
-tissue mechanisms
-coenzymes
-antioxidants
-hormone & neurotransmitter synthesis

114
Q

what vitamin does the gut bacteria synthesize?

A

VitK, B5, biotin

115
Q

what vitamin does the skin synthesize?

A

VitD3

116
Q

fat-soluble vitamins

A
  • A, D, E, K
    -stored in fat, too much can cause toxicity
117
Q

water-soluble vitamins

A
  • B, C, niacin, folacin, biotin
    -either used or excreted by kidney
118
Q

bioenergetics

A

study of acquisition & use of energy by organisms
-measure food in Calories

119
Q

1C = 1kcal (bioenergetics)

A

amount of energy needed to raise temp of 1 kg H2O 1°C
-lipids -> 9.46 C/g
-carbs -> 4.18 C/g
-protein -> 4.32 C/g

120
Q

metabolic rate

A

sum of all catabolic & anabolic reaction energy needs in body

121
Q

basal metabolic rate (BMR)

A

minimal energy cost of living to maintain homeostasis
-measured 12hr post food, 25 °C room average

122
Q

body mass index (BMI)

A

weight in Ib * 705 ÷ (height in inches) squared

123
Q

BMI levels:

A

< 18 = underweight
18-25 = normal
25-30 = overweight
>30 = obese (1:3 americans)

124
Q

obese

A

20 % + over ideal body weight

125
Q

Ob mouse studies:

A

leptin k/o mouse = obese
-leptin release by adipocytes to trigger satiation in brain
-5% of obese people have mutation in leptin gene or leptin receptor

126
Q

thermoregulation

A

-body temp: 97-104°F, for enzymes to function
heat: byproduct of metabolism

127
Q

110°F (thermoregulation)

A

dead, must lose heat

128
Q

radiation (heat transfer method)

A

infrared waves, ~50%

129
Q

conduction (heat transfer method)

A

direct heat transfer: low %

130
Q

convection (heat transfer method)

A

warm air rises away from skin, cold air gets heated, ~15%

131
Q

evaporation (heat transfer method)

A

water changes to gas vapor using heat energy, ~20%, constant 10% loss due to insensible perspiration

132
Q

heat regulation controlled by anterior hypothalamus:

A

-receptors in skin & brain detect temp change
-hypothalamus responds via ANS stimulation

133
Q

too hot (thermoregulation)

A

-trigger heat loss
1. peripheral vasodilation (increased radiation, convection)
2. sensible perspiration (increases evaporation)
3. increased respiration depth (increases evaporation)

134
Q

pyrexia

A

elevated temp, if too high -> heat stroke, cooling mechanisms shut down -> death

135
Q

too cold (thermoregulation)

A

-trigger heat retention & generation
1. constrict cutaneous vessels (decreased radiation, convection)

136
Q

frost bite

A

if the flow is restricted for too long, tissues due

137
Q

non shivering thermogenesis (too cold -> frost bite)

A

hormones increases metabolic rate (60% of catabolism = heat)

138
Q

shivering thermogenesis (too cold -> frost bite)

A

muscle contraction (↑ muscle metabolism & increased heat)

139
Q

hypothermia

A

low temperature, slow metabolism, confusion

140
Q

fever

A

triggered by pyrogens, rests thermostat, triggers heat generation to elevate body temp.
-104°F -> ok
-106°F -> dysfunctional
-110°F -> dead

141
Q

heat & surface area:

A

-volume to surface area ratio affects heat loss & BMR
-↑ area, decreased volume = ↑ heat loss & BMR (thin people, children)

142
Q

infants/small children have brown fat for heat generation (adipose with mitochondria):

A

aerobic respiration produces 60% heat, 40% heat

143
Q

age-related changes

A
  1. ↑ non-insulin dependent diabetes (cells ignore insulin & won’t use glucose
  2. ↑ glucose in blood can cause permanent protein changes by binding: cataracts, glaucoma, capillary blockage -> necrosis
  3. ↓ metabolic rate
  4. ↑ malnutrition due to ↓ appetite

a & p II unit 6 (2 decks)

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