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PSYC 102 > Chapter 2/Week 2 Material > Flashcards

Chapter 2/Week 2 Material Flashcards

1
Q

Why can intuition and experience cannot be used to form conclusions?

A

These reasons can be biased

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2
Q

Why is experience as a basis of ideas flawed?

A

Because we only experience one version of a situation rather than all possible combinations of events

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3
Q

How can intuition be flawed?

A

Because we are overconfident in our ideas, and also focus on instances that match our beliefs, rather than disproves them

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4
Q

What is overconfidence?

A

When one fails to notice or recall disconfirming cases

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5
Q

How does psychological science overcome bias?

A

Using systematic, controlled methods to test ideas

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6
Q

What is the scientific method?

A

the process of basing one’s confidence in an idea based on systematic, direct observations of the world, usually by setting up research studies to test ideas

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7
Q

What is the theory-data cycle?

A

the process of the scientific method, in which scientists collect data that can either confirm or disconfirm a theory

  • Develop a theory of behaviour
  • Develop hypothesis predicting behaviour, based of theory
  • Design an experiment to test it
  • Collect data w/o experiment
  • Compare data to hypothesis
    • If consistent, provide support for theory
    • If inconsistent, decreases support for theory
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8
Q

Define theory

A
  • a set of propositions explaining how and why people act, think, or feel
  • A model of connected ideas that explain observations and makes predictions of FUTURE events
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9
Q

Define hypothesis

A

a specific, testable prediction stating what will happen in a study if the theory is correct.

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10
Q

Define data

A

a set of empirical observations (i.e. Information received through means of the senses) that scientists have gathered

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11
Q

Define Replication

A

When a study is conducted more than once on a new sample of participants, and obtains the same basic results

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12
Q

Define journals

A

periodicals containing peer reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline, written for a scholarly audience

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13
Q

Why is replication important?

A

Because one study alone is not sufficient to fully confirm or disconfirm hypothesis or theory

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14
Q

Define variable

A

something of interest (to the study) that can vary from person to person or situation to situation (ex. Height, braking time)

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15
Q

Define measured variables

A

a variable whose values are simply recorded

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16
Q

Define manipulated variable

A

a variable whose values the researcher controls, usually by assigning different participants to different levels of that variable

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17
Q

Provide an example of how some variables can be measured or manipulated, vs measured only

A

Alcohol intake (can be measured or manipulated) vs. gender (measured only)

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18
Q

Define operational definitions

A

the specific way of measuring or manipulating an abstract variable in a particular study

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19
Q

What does it mean to “operationalize” a variable?

A

Means turn a variable into a specific number or value

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20
Q

What is self-reporting?

A

Form of operationalizing measured variables in which participants tell researchers about themselves

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21
Q

What is observation (experimental technique)?

A

A way of operationalizeing a measured variable in which researchers watch and record people’s behaviour

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22
Q

What is descripttive research? Provide an example

A

a type of study in which researchers study one variable at a time with the goal of describing what is typical

Ex. Average height

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23
Q

Define sample

A

the people who participated in research, and who belong to the larger group (i.e. The population of interest) that the researcher is interested in understanding

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24
Q

Define population of interest

A
  • the full set of individuals (or cases) the researcher is interested in
    • Does not necessarily need to be people, it could be “youtube video titles”
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25
Q

Define random sampling

A

a way of choosing a sample of participants for a study in which participants are selected without bias

  • If done correctly, allows for a sample to be generalizable to the population of interest
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26
Q

What is more important - sample size or the way it is selected?

A

Method used to obtain sample is more important

  • Should reflect the population of interest as closely as possible
  • Should be random to avoid confounds
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27
Q

What are surveys?

A

A form of descriptive research that uses self-report measures.

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28
Q

Define naturalistic observation

A

a research method in which psychologists observe the behaviour of animals or people in their normal, everyday worlds and environments

  • Reearchers use observational measures and records behaviour unobtrousively in this method
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29
Q

Define observational research

A

a descriptive research method in which psychologists measure their variable of interest by observing and recording what people are doing

  • Could be in person, or could even be online behaviour
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30
Q

Define case-study

A

An observational research method in which researchers study one or two individuals in-depth, often those who have a unique condition

  • Often extensively studied and for a long duration
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31
Q

Who was Henry Molaison?

A
  • Lived from 1950-2000
  • Suffered fro epilepsy, so had hippocampus removed
  • Studying his behaviour allowed for insights into role of hippocampus
  • Is an example of a case study
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32
Q

Define correlational research

A

a type of study that measures two (or more) variables in the same sample of people, and then observes the relationship between them

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33
Q

What is a scatterplot?

A

A figure used to represent correlation, in which each dot usually represents a study participant, the x-axis represents one variable, and the y-axis represents the other variable

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34
Q

What are the 3 types of correlation and how do they appear on a scatterplot?

A
  • Positive correlation -high scores on one variable predicts high scores on the other
  • Negative correlation - high scores on one variable predicts low scores on the other
  • Zero correlation indicates that there is no systematic relationship between variables
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35
Q

What does correlations allow researchers to do?

A

Allows one variable to predict position on another variable

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36
Q

What are the requirements to confirm causation?

A
  • Variable need to be correlated (covariance)
  • Need to know which variable came first (temporal precedence)
  • Must be NO reasonable alternative explanation
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37
Q

Define the third-variable problem.

A

A problem in correlational research in which a given observed relationship between two variables has an additional variable that can be associated with both of them, making the additional variable an alternative explanation for the observed relationship

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38
Q

How does the third-variable problem affect correlational studies?

A

Correlational studies are unable to rule out all possible third variables, and thus have NO causal power

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39
Q

Define experimental research

A
  • a study in which one variable is manipulated, and the other is measured.
  • Has ability to provide evidence of a causal relationship
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40
Q

What is an independent variable?

A
  • the manipulated variable(s) in the experiment
  • The hypothesized cause of the relationship
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41
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A
  • the measured variable(s) in the experiment
  • The hypothesized effect of the relationship
42
Q

Define random assignment

A

a procedure used in experimental research in which a random method is used to decide which participants will recieve each level of the independent variable

43
Q

Why is random assignment used?

A

allows the assumption that the only difference between groups is the independent variable

44
Q

Define experimental group

A

a group or condition in which some proposed cause is present

45
Q

Define control group

A

a group or condition in which some proposed cause is not present

46
Q

Define placebo condition

A

In an experiment, a group or condition in which people expect to recieve a treatment but are exposed only to an inert version, such as a sugar pill

47
Q

Define placebo effect

A

physiological effect of a treatment from a person’s expectation that the treatment might affect them

48
Q

What is a double-blind procedure?

A

a experimental procedure in which the participants and researchers are unaware of which condition is being given

49
Q

Why are double-blind procedures used?

A
  • ensures that participants are unaffected by their own biases about how treatment will work
  • ensure researcher could not subtly influence the participant’s behaviour with their expectations
50
Q

How can experiments meet the three criteria for causation?

A
  • Covariance satisfied when independent variable groups differ on the dependent variable
  • Temporal precedence satisfied because independent variable is altered prior to measurement of dependent variable
  • Random assignment of independent variable allows for alternative explanations (ex. difference between groups) to be rules out
    • Note that experimental design is necessary to ensure the third variable problem is eliminated; not just random assignment
51
Q

Define random

A

selected or assigned without any bias, such that all cases have an equal chance

52
Q

What is the difference between random sampling and random assignment?

A

Random sampling

  • Used to select participants
  • Can be used in any study (descriptive, correlational, and experimental)
  • Allows the results of a sample to be generalizable to the population of interest

Random assignment

  • Used to assign levels of an independent variable (i.e. assigning experimental condition)
  • Only used in experiments
  • Helps rule out alternative explanations in an experiment
53
Q

Compare descriptive, correlational, and experimental research

A
  • Descriptive - Tells us what people do, but not when they do it or who is most likely to do it
  • Correlational - Helps us study how variables are related to each other and variables that cannot be manipulated, but cannot identify causality
  • Experimental - allows us to establish support for causality, but limited by the need to maninpulate variables
54
Q

Define validity

A

the appropriateness or accuracy of a conclusion or decision

55
Q

Define consruct validity

A

the specific assessment of how accurately the operationalisations used in a study capture the variables of interest.

56
Q

Define reliability

A

the degree to which a measure yields consistent results each time it is administered

57
Q

What is necessary for construct validity?

A
  • Operationalizations of measured variables
    • Reliable (i.e. give consistent results)
    • Valid (i.e. Measure what they are supposed to measure)
  • Opearationalizations of manipulated variables
    • Need to be effective (i.e. actually changiing the variable)
58
Q

Define external validity

A

the degree to which it is reasonable to generalize from a study’s sample to its population of interest (i.e. “generalizability”)

59
Q

What are properties of externally valid studies?

A
  • Contains a diverse set of samples allowing for generalization (typically due to random sampling)
60
Q

Define internal validity

A

The ability of a study to rule out alternative explanations for a relationship between two variables; one of the criteria for supporting a casual claim

61
Q

What are ways to ensure good internal validity?

A
  • Random assignment
  • Carefully controlled independent variables
    • In both cases, it essentially prevents possible confounds
62
Q

Define confounds

A

An alternative explanation for a relationship between two variables, specially, in an experiment, when two experimental groups accidentally differ on more than just one variable which causes a problem for internal validity

63
Q

What are 5 good questions to ask when evaluating something critically?

A
  • What am I asked to believe
  • What kind of evidence is there?
  • How strong is the result?
  • Is the claim casual?
  • Can the study be/been replicated?
64
Q

Define descripitive statistics

A

a graph or computation that describes the characteristic of a batch of scores, such as its distribution, central tendency, and variability

65
Q

What are frequency distributions?

A

A descriptive statistic that takes the form of a bar graph in which the possible scores on a variable are listed on the x-axis and the total number of people who had each score (from the x-axis) is plotted on the y-axis

66
Q

Define central tendency

A

the center batch of scores

67
Q

How is centeral tendency measured?

A
  • Mean - a measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of a group of scores
  • Median - a measure of central tendency that is the middlemost score; it is obtained by lining up the scores from smallest to largest and identifying the middle score
  • Mode - a measure of central tendency that is the most common score in a batch of scores
68
Q

Define variability

A

the extent to which the scores in a batch differ from one another

69
Q

Define range

A

highest and lowest score of each batch

70
Q

Define standard deviation

A

A variability statistic that calculates how much, on average, a batch of scores varies around its mean

71
Q

How is variability measured?

A

Using variance or standard deviation

72
Q

Define effect size

A

A numerical estimate of the strength of a relationship between two variables. It can take the form of a correlation coefficient, or, for an experiment, the difference between two group means divided by the standard deviations of the two groups

73
Q

What is the effect size used for?

A

Quantifying the strength of a relationship

74
Q

What is the symbol for correlation coefficients?

A

r

75
Q

What does the magnitude of r mean?

A

Strength of a relationship

76
Q

What does the sign of r mean?

A

The direction of the correlation/relationship

77
Q

What does “d” mean? (in statistics)

A

d = difference; measuring the difference between two means from paired data. (textbook simplifies greatly; basically, it’s referring to the true difference in means, measured in SD. d is difference alone, but dw about it)

78
Q

Define inferential statistics

A

A set of procedures used to estimate whether a pattern of results in the sample represents a true relationship or difference in the population

79
Q

Define Statistical significance

A

a process of inference that applies rules of logic and probability to estimate whether the results obtained in a study’s sample are the same in a larger population

80
Q

What does it mean to be “statstically significant”?

A

Essentially means that there is a very low probability that the difference that we have seen is due to no effect (so there is a high probability that we did see an effect)

81
Q

How can the detection of true effects be improved?

A
  • When the effect size is large
  • When the sample size is large
  • When the variability of observations is small
82
Q

What are meta-analyses?

A

a process in which researchers locate all the studies that have tested the same variables and mathematically average them to better estimate the effect size of the a population

83
Q

What are the three core ethical principles?

A

Autonomy, Beneficence, Justice

84
Q

What does the ethical principle of autonomy mean?

A
  • It is concerned about the participant’s right to participate in a study
  • This means the researchers MUST inform people honestly about the study’s procedures, risks, and benefits, as well as allowing people the freedom to consent or not (“informed consent”)
85
Q

What does the ethical principle of beneficence mean?

A
  • Concerned with the risks and benefits of the study
  • Researchers need to ensure participants are not harmed physically or psychologically, and that the study needs to be of some benefit to society
86
Q

What does the ethical principle of justice mean?

A
  • Concerned with who participates in research
  • Means that the people who bear the burden of discomfort or inconvenience for participating should be the same types of people who can expect to benefit from its results.
87
Q

Guidelines on what particlar items must be followed by researchers when working with animals?

A

Guidelines for living space, food, housing conditions, and stimulation (ex. toys) must be followed

88
Q

What are the three r’s of animal use in experiments?

A
  • Replacement - alternatives should be used (instead of animal models) where possible
  • Refinement - Modification of experimental protocol and other aspects should be done to minimize or eliminiate animal distress
  • Reduction - should utilize the fewest animal subjects psossible
89
Q

Define animal welfare

A

Belief that animals should be protected from pain & suffering

90
Q

Define animal rights

A

The belief that animals have inherent rights equal to those of humans (which mean that animals cannot be used for experiments as they are incapable of providing consent)

91
Q

Why are replciation studies done?

A

To help establish whether findings of a study reflect the true effect

92
Q

Why can studies fail to be replicated?

A
  • Originial finding was not a true effect
  • Problem with replication study
93
Q

What are false positives?

A

a statistically significant finding that does not reflect a real effect

94
Q

What is the problem with small samples?

A

Samples can be too small and are unable to have external validity

95
Q

What is HARKing?

A

“Hypothesizing after the results are known”; a questionable research practice in which researchers create an after-the-fact hypothesis about an unexpected search result, making it appear that they have predicted it all along

96
Q

What is p-hacking?

A

a family of questionable data analysis techniques, such as adding participants after the results are initially analyzed, looking for outliers, or trying new analyses in order to obtain a p value of under 0.05, which can lead to non-replicable results

97
Q

What is the problem with underreporting nonsignificant effects?

A

Underreporting leads people to think evidence for a theory is stronger than it really is

98
Q

What is open science?

A

The practice of sharing one’s data, materials, analysis plans, and published articles freely so others can collaborate, use, verify the results

99
Q

What is preregistration?

A

a researcher’s public statement of a study’s expected outcome before collecting any data; prevents HARKing

100
Q

What are spurious correlations?

A

When two variables are correlated without being causally related

PSYC 102 (2 decks)

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