Chapter 2: Theories of Aggression

Question 1

What are the four biological theories studied?

Answer 1

1. Ethological View
2. Evolutionary/Sociobiological Theory
3. Genetic Influences
4. Hormones and Aggression
   - focus on the roots of aggressive behaviour in the biological nature of humans, rather that their psychological functioning

Question 2

What is the ethological view? Main database and empirical evidence?

Answer 2

Presented by Lorenz (1966)
Considered the “hydraulic” model of aggression; believes that a buildup of aggressive urges must be released. If the amount of energy rises above a certain level without being release by an external stimulus, it will overflow, leading to spontaneous aggression. Meaning aggression is inevitable.

No, it does not withhold in humans. It seems to apply to animal behaviour; ex. a certain type of fish will attack things that are red in their environment because their enemy fish has a red belly. However, this is not supported in humans; we do not simply act on our aggressive urges with violence.

• -
  1. Aggression conceptualized as internal energy released by external cues; steam-boiler model
  2. Main database: animal studies
  3. Empirical evidence: no support as a model for human aggression, but still popular in lay discourse

Question 3

What is the evolutionary (sociobiological) theory of aggression? What did Daly and Watson find? How does Buss explain mens aggression? Main database and empirical evidence?

Answer 3

Emphasizes genetic survival rather than survival of the individual. Aggression is an adaptive behaviour that enhances chances of survival and succession of genes.
- there is a positive correlation between height and physical aggression in men

Daly & Watson (2005) found step-parents are far more likely (70-100x) to abuse or murder their children than biological parents

Evolutionary Theory of Aggression developed by Buss (2004)
Men aggress as a means of attaining or maintaining status, this:
a. establishes dominance over other males leading to a better chance to pass on genes
b. show’s jealousy when another man shows interest in mate to ensure being the father of offspring
–
1. Aggression conceptualized as product of evolution through natural selection
2. Main database: animal studies and correlational studies in humans
3. Empirical evidence: support for correlational but not causal links

Question 4

What is the genetic influence in biological theories in aggression? What have twin studies offered to biological theories? Main database and empirical evidence?

Answer 4

Says a person’s temperament early in life usually endures, more aggressive children will be more aggressive in adulthood.
Genetically related individuals are more similar in terms of their aggressive tendencies than individuals who are not genetically related.

Twin studies found that identical twins are more likely to both have criminal records than fraternal twins, and if one is aggressive the other is likely to be as well (Raine, 2008)
Genes (nature) is more powerful than environment (nurture) in explaining similarities in aggression in adulthood, but it is reversed for children and adolescents.
–
1. Aggression conceptualized as transmitted as part of genetic make-up
2. Main database: twin and adoption studies
3. Empirical evidence: support for the predictive value of genetic similarity; genetic make-up must be regarded as a potentially important source of individual variation in aggression

Question 5

How do hormones and aggression interact in the biological perspective? What is a study that looks at this interaction? Main database and empirical evidence?

Answer 5

Testosterone (T) is associated with high levels of aggression (in both men and women), but especially men low in self-control and high in dominance.
Testosterone is higher among criminals convicted of violent crimes (Dabbs et al., 1995) but correlation doesn’t imply causation, may be a consequence as it has been found that when provoked, testosterone levels rise.
–
1. Aggression conceptualized as transmitted by male sex hormones and cortisol
2. Main database: comparisons of violent and non-violent individuals
3. Empirical evidence: some empirical support
- weaker in humans than in animals

Question 6

What is Freud’s Dual Instinct theory?

Answer 6

Freud proposed that individual behaviour is driven by two basic features which are part and parcel of human nature:
1. The life instinct (Eros) = drives individuals towards pleasure seeking and wish fulfillment; such as basic survival (hunger, thirst, relationships), pleasure, and reproduction
2. The death instinct (Thanatos) = directed at self-destruction; evolved after WW1 because of large amount of casualties
Our intrapsychic conflict can be resolved by redirecting self-destructive instinct towards the destruction of other people
- people kill each other to avoid turning our aggression towards ourselves, meaning war and aggression is inevitable
–
1. Aggression conceptualized as a destructive instinct
2. Main database: case studies
3. Empirical evidence: no quantitative empirical evaluation, but important source for the F-A hypothesis

Question 7

What is the Frustration-Aggression (F-A) Hypothesis?

Answer 7

Developed by Dollard (1939) as a response to Freud’s theory. The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis states that aggression is an automatic response when a goal-directed behaviour is blocked.
Makes two claims;
- Frustration always leads to aggression
- Frustration is the only cause of aggression

This was a very limiting theory, so they quickly revised to state that aggression increases in direct proportion to:

• Amount of satisfaction the person anticipates before goal is blocked
  ex. person will be more frustrated by a cancelled event as the more excited they were for it
• Closer person is to achieving the goal, the more aggressive they’ll be
  ex. someone will be more frustrated by a line-butter if they are close to the beginning of the line
• -
  1. Aggression conceptualized as a likely response to frustration, likelihood enhanced by aggressive cues
  2. Main database: experimental studies
  3. Empirical evidence: supported by empirical evidence

Question 8

What is the young male syndrome? To which theory does it belong?

Answer 8

It belongs to the evolutionary theory of aggression.

Young male syndrome: men between 18-35 are in their best reproductive years so they are most likely to commit murder, with the victim most likely being another young adult male
This seems to support the theory; however, in most modern societies, status is based on many other factors, ex. wealth, occupational success, reputation

Question 9

What is the predicted heritability of aggression?

Answer 9

Meta-analyses estimate heritability of aggression is at 40-50%, leaving room for many environmental factors

Question 10

Which gene is thought to be associated with aggressive behaviour? What is a study that has tested this gene? What conclusions can be drawn based on genes and aggression?

Answer 10

Monoamine oxidase-A (MAOA); people with low-functioning variant of this gene are at an increased risk for aggressive behaviour

Denson et al. (2009) found that after being insulted by experimenter, participants with low-functioning MAOA showed higher levels of anger and hostility

Genes predispose individuals to aggressive tendencies and a certain temperament, but environment has strong influence on whether aggressive tendencies will manifest in behaviour

Question 11

What did Van Goozen et al. find when studying testosterone in trans individuals?

Answer 11

Van Goozen et al. (1995) tracked 50 individuals undergoing sex change procedures. Studied 35 female to male and 15 male to female.
They found that women receiving testosterone became more aggressive, and men receiving T-suppressors became less aggressive. But this could be caused by societal reasons.

Question 12

What is a study done in support of the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis? What are it’s problems?

Answer 12

A confederate cut in-front of individuals in the front of line at different points.They found that the person who was second in line was much more aggressive than the person twelfth in line.

Two main problems:

1. Many aggressive acts are not preceded by frustration
   ex. instrumental aggression (assassination of a stranger)
2. Frustration often results in many non-aggressive outcomes
   ex. apathy, helplessness

Question 13

What is displacement and catharsis under the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis? What are the problems with these?

Answer 13

Displacement: aggression deflected from source of frustration to a substitute target
ex. mad at boss but taking it out on spouse

Catharsis: idea that getting anger “out of one’s system” will reduce motive to aggress further, most people believe in this and use it as an excuse for aggressive behaviour but it is not supported by research
- Freud says catharsis is releasing destructive energy through non-aggressive expressive behaviour (ex. jokes), but only has temporary effects

Main two problems:

1. Fighting anger with anger is like putting a fire out with gasoline; opportunities for aggression usually heighten subsequent aggression (Bushman, 2002)
2. Makes subsequent aggression seem more appropriate

Question 14

What is the Revised Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis?

Answer 14

Developed by (Berkowitz, 1989), state that any unpleasant stimulation will lead to hostile aggression, but only when it generates unpleasant feelings
ex. we will probably not act aggressively if a full bus drives past us, but we might if the bus driver splashes us with a puddle and laughs as it drives by

Question 15

What is the Cognitive Neoassociation Model?

Answer 15

Developed by Berkowitz as a revised frustration-aggression hypothesis with further developments. States that frustration leads to aggression only when it arouses negative affective states.
If unpleasant experiences (pain, heat, etc.) lead to negative feelings it will active a:
- anger schema and we will be likely to fight
- fright schema and we will be likely to flee
The reaction of either anger or fright is determined by the objects of events priming the aggression; largely based on intentions of provocation, and past experiences
ex. if provoked at a sporting event, it will prime anger
if provoked in a rough part of town, it will prime fear
This implies that aggression is not an inevitable feature of human behaviour, but rather a potential one, which is facilitated or suppressed by the emotional experience elicited by the aversive event and its subsequent cognitive processing.
–
1. Aggression conceptualized as a result of affect elicited by aversive stimulation that is interpreted as anger
2. Main database: experimental studies
3. Empirical evidence: supported by empirical evidence

Question 16

What is the weapons effect? Describe a study which explores this effect. What was the main criticism of the study?

Answer 16

The weapons effect is the tendency for weapons to enhance aggressive thoughts, feelings, and actions

Berkowitz & Lepage (1967) told male participants that they were working against another person to generate ideas on increasing profits, the other participant was a confederate who gave shocks for negative feedback
IV.1: non-angered (1 shock, ideas were good) vs. angered (7 shocks, ideas were bad)
IV.2: object present (badminton rackets vs. guns) on the table
Participants were then given confederates ideas and told to give feedback in the form of shocks
DV: chance to retaliate with shocks
They found that the presence of guns did not affect aggression when the participant was not angered, but when the participant was angered, the participants with guns present gave more shocks than when a racket was present

Criticism: people could assume they wanted them to act more aggressively with guns around them

Question 17

After criticism of the weapon effects study, which follow-up study was conducted? What can be concluded from the follow-up study?

Answer 17

Turner (1975) put a pickup truck stationary at a traffic light, observations of honking were made to assess aggression
IV.1: Control (just pickup truck present)
IV.2: Pickup truck + gun rack with rifle
IV.3: Pickup truck + gun rack with rifle + “Vengeance” bumper sticker
DV: how quickly person honked
They found that 30% honked in (1) condition, 40% honked in (2) condition, 60% honked in (3) condition

Why wasn’t fear provoked? It’s unsure, but this is evidence against argument for teachers to have guns since the presence leads to aggression

Question 18

What is the Excitation Transfer Theory?

Answer 18

Like the cognitive neo-association model, excitation transfer theory highlights the role of negative arousal as a powerful stimulant of aggression.
The intensity of an anger experience is a function of two components:
1. the strength of the physiological arousal generated by an aversive event
2. the way in which the arousal is explained and labelled
ex. if a driver is inches away from hitting a pedestrian, arousal interpreted as anger will depend on the situation
- if pedestrian is an adult, likely to arouse anger for carelessness
- if pedestrian is a child, likely to arouse relieve
However, sources of arousal other than frustration/anger can produce aggression, as a result of misattribution
ex. exercise, viewing sporting events, sexual stimuli
- if physiological arousal from a neural activity, such as climbing stairs, is still present when the person encounter an anger-eliciting situation, such as being verbally attacked, the earlier neutral arousal (excitation) is transferred on to the anger-related arousal and falsely attributed as anger
- however, misattribution only occurs if the person is no longer aware of the source of the neutral arousal

Question 19

What is a study that explores Excitation Transfer Theory? What did a follow-up study find?

Answer 19

Zillmann and Bryant (1974) used the essay evaluation paradigm
IV.1: Participants given feedback from confederate in form of aversive noise (strong vs. mild)
IV.2: follow-up task was strenuous (exercise) or non-strenuous (knitting)
DV: opportunity to retaliate against confederate (in teacher-learner paradigm)
Found that participants given noise blasts + vigorous exercise retaliated with stronger aversive noise than any other group; arousal from riding the bicycle was misread as anger

In a follow-up, it was found excitation transfer can occur even when people have left the original setting
ex. after raucous sporting event, mosh-pits at concerts

Question 20

In the Social Cognitive Approach, what is a script? When we enact our scripts?

Answer 20

A script consists of knowledge structures that describe “appropriate sequences of events in a particular context”
- the semantic knowledge that guides our understanding of ordered events
ex. we have a different script for being at a restaurant, for flying on a plane, and for going on a date
Inherent in aggressive scripts are normative beliefs that guide the individual’s decision as to whether or not a specific response is appropriate under the given circumstances.
Will enact scripts if:
- seen as efficacious for solving conflicts
- perceive other’s action has hostile intent

Question 21

How do children acquire aggressive scripts?

Answer 21

Children acquire aggressive scripts through socialization
ex. Bobby insults Jimmy, Jimmy punches Bobby, Bobby runs away crying, and Jimmy’s friends praise him; children believe this is the appropriate series of events
They often learn that they can get away with hitting a peer if a peer hits them first, but they can’t hit an adult who is disciplining them

Question 22

What is the Social Learning Theory of Aggression?

Answer 22

Developed by Bandura (1963).
Aggression is learned through:
a. instrumental learning, which is behaviour change through direct reinforcement; being rewarded for aggressive behaviour
b. modelling, which is behaviour change through vicarious reinforcement; learning by imitation, seeing others rewarded for aggression
–
1. Aggression conceptualized as a result of reinforcement, either direct or indirect (observed)
2. Main database: experimental and observational studies
3. Empirical evidence: supported by empirical evidence

Question 23

What is a study that explores Social Learning Theory of Aggression?

Answer 23

The “Bobo doll” experiments
Children watching adults acting aggressively towards a doll, will act aggressively towards it as well, different variations:
- live adult model
- filmed adult model
- cartoon cat model
- non-aggressive model (control)
Children brought to a room with highly entisive toys but told they could not play with those toys, to induce frustration, and then brought to a different room with both “aggressive” toys (nerf guns) and “non-aggressive” toys (plastic farm animals)
Children showed the most imitation of aggressive behaviours when shown the live model, followed by filmed model, and then cartoon model; children shown the non-aggressive model act very non-aggressively compared to other children

Question 24

What is the General Aggression Model (GAM)?

Answer 24

Developed by Anderson & Bushman (2002). The GAM aims to explore how aggressive behaviours emerges both in specific situations and over time.
* Look at diagram in notes.
Assumes the starting point of an aggressive interaction lies in individual dispositions (ex. trait anger) and external stimuli (ex. aggressive cues), that meet in a particular situation and evoke an interrelated set of internal processed in the actor. They elicit an internal state that is characterized by specific cognitions, feelings, and arousal symptoms. This internal state gives rise to a fast automatic reappraisal of the situation. Then the situation is considered in a more controlled and elaborate way, leading to the selection and enactment of a behavioural response. Depending on the reappraisal, the response will either be aggressive or non-aggressive.

Ex. Road rage incident
We first have an automatic appraisal: “this d-bag cut me off - wtf!”, followed by either:
- Controlled reappraisal (aggressive): “he did it on purpose, I’m going to confront him”
- Controlled reappraisal (non-aggressive): “my kids are in the backseat, I’d better just drive away”
–
1. Aggression conceptualized as a result of personal and situational input variables eliciting affective, cognitive, and physiological responses
2. Main database: correlational experimental, and longitudinal studies
3. Empirical evidence: supported by empirical evidence

Question 25

What does the evolutionary/sociobiological theory add to the discussion of rape?

Answer 25

Rape is part of the evolutionary inheritance of all men. Sexual aggression is a high-risk mating option for men who have limited opportunities for reproduction through consensual sexual relationships. Implies that reproduction is the main functional basis for rape.

Question 26

If one is born with genes that predispose them to be aggressive, are they doomed to be an aggressive individual?

Answer 26

No, although genes do predispose certain individuals to be more aggressive than others, environmental factors play a crucial role in determining whether or not that predisposition will actually be expressed in aggressive behaviour.

Question 27

How does testosterone affect the fight or flight response?

Answer 27

Testosterone is related to the activation of fight impulses and the inhibition of flight or avoidance behaviour, increasing the likelihood of an aggressive response.

Question 28

What did Klinesmith et al. (2006) find in a study on testosterone and guns?

Answer 28

They asked male participants to handle either a gun or a children’s toy for 15 minutes, and measured testosterone levels before and after.
Men who had handled the gun showed a significant increase in testosterone levels, whereas those who had handled the toy did not. Those with the gun also showed heightened aggression in hot sauce paradigm.

Question 29

Besides testosterone, which other hormone has been tested in relation to aggression?

Answer 29

Cortisol, which is related to the experience and management of stress.
Low cortisol levels related to fearlessness, risk taking, and insensitivity to punishment. Low levels in boys predict aggressive behaviour over time.

Question 30

What is the Social Cognitive Approach?

Answer 30

Studies individual differences in aggression as a function of differences in social information processing.
Two issues have been explored by this research:
a. the development of cognitive schemata that guide aggressive behaviour
b. characteristic ways of processing social information that distinguish between aggressive and non-aggressive individuals
- largely focuses on scripts
–
1. Aggression conceptualized as a result of information processing, enactment of learned scripts
2. Main database: experimental and longitudinal studies
3. Empirical evidence: supported by empirical evidence

Question 31

How do aggressive cues affect aggression?

Answer 31

If aggression-related cues are present, individuals are more likely to select an aggressive response when angered or provoked.

ex. the weapon effect.
ex. Ellison-Porter et al. (2001) found that participants who drove past billboards with aggressive messages committed more acts of aggressive driving, than participants who past non-aggressive billboards.

Question 32

What is the most important information to retain in “when will a person act aggressively?”

Answer 32

The way in which people think about an aversive event and about the emotional reaction they experience as a consequence is critical in determining level of anger as well as the likelihood and strength of an aggressive response.

Question 33

What is the Social Information Processing (SIP) model?

Answer 33

Developed by Dodge (2006), under the social cognitive approach.
The SIP model sees the development of social behaviour as a transactional process in which individuals are both influenced by their social environment and are themselves actively involved in shaping that environment.
Specific sequence of social-cognitive processes that pave the way to aggressive behaviour:
1. encoding of cues; involves perception and encoding of the social stimulus, such as receiving a derogatory comment from a peer
2. interpretation of cues; attributions are made about intent and causality, did the person mean it?
3. clarification of goals; individuals engage in a process of identifying and prioritizing their interests in the situation (ex. stay friends, retaliate)
4. response access or construction; such as dismissing the remark as funny or responding with an angry comment
5. response selection; the sequence ends with the selection of a response that is then enacted in the situation

Question 34

What is the social interactionist model?

Answer 34

Previous theories focused on hostile or impulsive aggression, the social interactionist model is concerned with the instrumental function of coercive actions.
Postulates that coercive strategies are used to inflict harm on the target or to make the target comply with the actor’s demands in the service of three major goals:
a. to control the behaviour of others
b. to restore justice
c. to assert and protect positive identities
ex. if a relative wants another relative to add them to their will, they can choose to use either non-coercive methods (persuasion), or coercive methods (threats)

Question 35

What are the three forms of coercive actions at the core of the social interactionist model?

Answer 35

1. threat; the communication of an intention to harm the target person
2. punishment; an act performed with the intention of inflicting harm on the target person
3. bodily force; ex. the use of physical contact to compel or constrain the behaviour of another person

Question 36

How does the GAM offer a perspective on the development of aggression over time?

Answer 36

Each aggressive episode is seen as a social learning trial in which aggression-related knowledge structures are rehearsed and reinforced. The more often a person engages in aggressive behaviour with negative consequences, the lower the threshold becomes for choosing to act aggressively in the future, the more readily aggressive scripts are accessed, and the more rapidly aggressive cognitions are activated.