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Developmental Psychology > Chapter 2: Research strategies > Flashcards

Chapter 2: Research strategies Flashcards

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1
Q

When does research begin?

A

Research begins with a prediction drawn from a theory (hypothesis).

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2
Q

What occurs when there is little or no theory on which to base a hypothesis?

A

The investigator may start with a research question

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3
Q

Define event sampling.

A

The observer records all instances of a particular behaviour during a specified time period

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4
Q

Define time sampling.

A

The researcher records whether certain behaviours occur during a sample of short intervals

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5
Q

What is observer influence?

A

The effects of the observer on the behaviour studied

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6
Q

What are two methods of reducing observer influence?

A
  1. Adaptation period – the researcher visits the research setting, before commencing research, so participants get used to their presence
  2. Individuals who are part of the child’s natural environment are asked to do the observing
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7
Q

What is it called when when observers are aware of the purposes of a study, so they may see and record what they expect to see rather than what participants actually do?

A

Observer bias.

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8
Q

What is an EEG, and how it is conducted?

A

Electroencephalogram

Electrodes embedded in a head cap record electrical activity in the brain’s outer layers (cerebral cortex).

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9
Q

How are EEG conducted today?

A

Researchers use an advanced tool called a geodesic sensor net (GSN) to hold interconnected electrodes (up to 128 for infants and 256 for children and adults) in place through a cap that adjusts to each person’s head shape, yielding improved brain-wave detection.

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10
Q

How are event-related potentials (ERP) conducted?

A

Using the EEG, the frequency and amplitude of brain waves in response to particular stimuli (e.g. a picture, music, or sound) are recorded in multiple areas of the cerebral cortex.

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11
Q

What is the purpose of conducting an ERP?

A

It enables identification of general regions of stimulus-induced activity.

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12
Q

Explain how an fMRI works.

A

While a person lies inside a tunnel-shaped apparatus that creates a magnetic field, a scanner magnetically detects increased blood flow and oxygen metabolism in precise areas of the brain as the individual processes particular stimuli. The scanner typically records images every 1 – 4 seconds; these are combined into a computerised moving picture of activity anywhere in the brain (not just its outer layers).

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13
Q

What does fMRI stand for?

A

Functional magnetic resonance imaging

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14
Q

Why are fMRI and PET not appropriate for use with children younger than 5-6 years old?

A

They cannot remain still during testing.

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15
Q

Why would a researcher choose to conduct an EEG or ERP, rather than an fMRI or PET?

A

The cost of equipment and testing for fMRI and PET is much higher than that of EEG and ERPs.

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16
Q

How does positron emission tomography (PET) work?

A

After injection or inhalation of a radioactive substance, the person lies on an apparatus with a scanner that emits fine streams of x-rays, which detect increased blood flow and oxygen metabolism in areas of the brain as the person processes particular stimuli. The result is a computerised moving picture of ‘online’ activity anywhere in the brain.

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17
Q

Which neurobiological method of research is this: Using thin, flexible optical fibres attached to the scalp, infrared (invisible) light is beamed at the brain; its absorption by areas of the cerebral cortex varies with changes in blood flow and oxygen metabolism as the individual processes particular stimuli. The result is a computerised moving picture of active areas in the cerebral cortex?

A

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)

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18
Q

Why is NIRS appropriate for use with infants and children?

A

It allows for a limited range of movement.

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19
Q

What are the two methods of systematic observation?

A

Naturalistic observation

Structured observation

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20
Q

What is the difference between naturalistic observation and structured observation?

A

Naturalistic observation occurs in natural contexts while structured observation occurs in a laboratory, where conditions are the same for all participants.

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21
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observation?

A

Strength:
Reflects participants’ everyday behaviours
Weaknesses:
Cannot control conditions under which participants are observed.
Accuracy of observations may be reduced by observer influence and observer bias.

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22
Q

What are the strengths of structured observation?

A

Grants each participant an equal opportunity to display the behaviour of interest.
Permits study of behaviours rarely seen in everyday life.

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23
Q

What are the weaknesses of structured observation?

A

May not yield observations typical of participants’ behaviour in everyday life.
Accuracy of observations may be reduced by observer influence and observer trust

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24
Q

What method of research involves a flexible interviewing procedure in which the investigator obtains a complete account of the participants’ thoughts?

A

Clinical interview

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25
Q

Name the different types of self-report methods.

A

Clinical interview
Structured interview
Questionnaires
Tests

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26
Q

What are the two strengths of using a clinical interview?

A

Comes as close as possible to the way participants think in everyday life.
Great breadth and depth of information can be obtained in a short time.

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27
Q

What are the weaknesses of research which is based on clinical interviews?

A

May not result in accurate reporting of information.

Flexible procedures make comparing individuals’ responses difficult.

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28
Q

What are the benefits of using structured interviews, questionnaires, or tests?

A

Permits comparisons of participants’ responses and efficient data collection.
Researchers can specify answer alternatives that participants might not think of in an open-ended interview.

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29
Q

What are the limitations of using structured interviews, questionnaires, or tests?

A

Does not yield the same depth of information as clinical interview.
Responses are still subject to inaccurate reporting.

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30
Q

If a researcher uses neurobiological methods of research, what relationship are they interested in exploring?

A

The relationship between nervous system processes and behaviour.

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31
Q

What are two benefits of using neurobiological methods?

A

Reveals which central nervous system structures contribute to development and individual differences in certain competencies.
Helps researchers infer the perceptions, thought, and emotions of infants and young children, who cannot report them clearly.

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32
Q

Why can neurobiological methods NOT reveal the meaning of autonomic brain activity?

A

Many factors besides those of interest to the researcher can influence a physiological response.

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33
Q

A researcher combines interviews, observations, test scores, and sometimes neurobiological assessments to develop a full picture of one individual’s psychological functioning. What research method has this researcher adopted?

A

Clinical, or Case-Study, method

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34
Q

Why would case studies be conducted?

A

Provides rich, descriptive insights into the many factors affecting development.

35
Q

What are the limitations of conducting a case study?

A

It may be biased by researchers’ theoretical preferences.

The findings cannot be applied to individuals other than the participant.

36
Q

A researcher engages in participant observation of a culture or distinct social group and makes extensive field notes. What method of research is he undertaking, and why?

A

Ethnography.

The researcher is trying to capture the culture’s unique values and social processes.

37
Q

Why would a researcher use ethnography instead of interviews, questionnaires or single observation?

A

It provides a more complete description.

38
Q

What are the limitations of ethnographic research?

A

May be biased by researcher’s values and theoretical preferences.
Findings cannot be applied to individuals and settings other than the ones studied

39
Q

What are the two keys to scientifically sound research?

A

Reliability

Validity

40
Q

What does reliability refer to?

A

The consistency/repeatability of measures of behaviour.

41
Q

What does validity refer to?

A

Accurate measure of the characteristic that the researcher set out to study

42
Q

What are the two types of validity, and what do they refer to?

A

Internal validity: the degree to which conditions internal to the design of the study permit an accurate test of the researcher’s hypothesis/question.
External validity: the degree to which findings generalise to settings and participants outside the original study.

43
Q

What is a correlation coefficient ?

A

A number that describes how two measures, or variables, are associated with each other.

44
Q

Can a correlation coefficient be higher than 1.00?

A

No. It ranges between -1.00 and +1.00.

45
Q

What does the sign (+ or -) refer to in a correlation coefficient?

A

It refers to direction of relationship
+ one variable increases as the other increases
- one variable decreases as the other increases.

46
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

The variable that the investigator expects to cause changes in another variable

47
Q

What is the dependent variable?

A

The variable that is expected to be influenced by the independent variable

48
Q

When variables are so closely related that their effects on an outcome cannot be distinguished, what are these variables known as?

A

Confounding variables.

49
Q

What are two ways of reducing the problem of confounding variables?

A

random assignment

matching

50
Q

Give the description for correlational design.

A

The investigator obtains information on participants without altering their experiences.

51
Q

If a correlational design is used, what can you do with the results, and what can’t you do?

A

It permits study of relationships between variables, but it does not permit inferences about cause-and-effect relationships.

52
Q

What type of experiment is being done when under controlled conditions, the investigator manipulates an independent variable and looks at its effect on a dependent variable?

A

Laboratory experiment which also requires random assignment of participants to treatment conditions

53
Q

What is the benefit of conducting a laboratory experiment?

A

You can make inferences about cause-and-effect relationships.

54
Q

What is the limitation of a laboratory experiment?

A

Findings may not generalise to the real world.

55
Q

What process is involved in a field experiment?

A

The investigator randomly assigns participants to treatment conditions in natural settings.

56
Q

What is the strength of field experiments?

A

Permits generalisation of findings to the real world.

57
Q

What is the weakness of a field experiment, when compared to a laboratory experiment?

A

Control over the treatment is generally weaker than in a laboratory experiment.

58
Q

Why would a researcher conduct natural, or quasi-natural, experiments?

A

They permit the study of many real-world conditions that cannot be experimentally manipulated.

59
Q

What is a weakness associated with natural, or quasi-natural, experiments?

A

Findings may be due to variables other than the treatment.

60
Q

What is a natural, or quasi-natural, experiment?

A

The investigator compares already existing treatments in the real world, carefully selecting groups of participants to ensure their characteristics are as much alike as possible.

61
Q

When there is a failure to enlist participants who represent the population of interest, what is this known as?

A

Biased sampling

62
Q

What is selective attrition (in longitudinal studies)?

A

Participants may move away or drop out for other reasons, and those who continue are likely to differ in important ways from those who drop out

63
Q

When performance improves, it may be due to better test-taking skills and increased familiarity with the test, and not because of factors linked to development. What is this phenomenon known as?

A

Practice effects

64
Q

What are cohort effects?

A

Children developing in the same time period may be influenced by particular cultural and historical conditions so results from one cohort may not apply to children developing at other times

65
Q

What are four designs for studying development?

A

Longitudinal
Cross-sectional
Sequential
Microgenetic

66
Q

What design is used when the investigator studies the same group of participants repeatedly at different ages.

A

Longitudinal

67
Q

What is the strength of a longitudinal design?

A

It permits study of common patterns and individual differences in development and relationships between early and later events and behaviours.

68
Q

What are the weaknesses of longitudinal design?

A

Age-related changes may be distorted because of biased sampling, selective attrition, practice effects, and cohort effects.
Theoretical and methodological changes in the field can make findings obsolete.

69
Q

How is a study using cross-sectional design conducted?

A

The investigator studies groups of participants differing in age at the same time.

70
Q

When compared to longitudinal design, what are the benefits of cross-sectional design?

A

More efficient than the longitudinal design.

Avoids problems of selective attrition, practice effects, and theoretical and methodological changes in the field.

71
Q

What are the limitations of cross-sectional design?

A

Does not permit study of individual developmental trends.

Age differences may be distorted because of cohort effects.

72
Q

What is involved in a study that uses sequential design?

A

The investigator conducts several cross-sectional or longitudinal investigations (called sequences). These might study participants over the same ages but in different years, or they might study participants over different ages but during the same years.

73
Q

What are the strengths of sequential design?

A

When the design includes longitudinal sequences, permits both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons.
Also reveals cohort effects.
Enables tracking of age-related changes more efficiently than the longitudinal design.

74
Q

While sequential design may have the same problems as longitudinal and cross-sectional design, what is the benefit of using this design over the other two?

A

The design itself helps identify difficulties.

75
Q

A researcher presents children with a novel task and follows their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions. Which design strategy has the researcher adopted?

A

Microgenetic

76
Q

While studies which adopt a microgenetic strategy may offer insights into how changes occur, what are the limitations to using this strategy?

A

Requires intensive study of participants’ moment-by-moment behaviours; the time required for participants to change is difficult to anticipate.
Practice effects may distort developmental trends.

77
Q

What are the five ethical principles that must be adhered to when conducting research involving children?

A 
Protection from harm
Informed consent
Privacy
Knowledge of results
Beneficial treatments
78
Q

What is the risk-versus-benefit ratio?

A

Weighing up the costs to participants in terms of inconvenience and possible psychological/physical injury against the study’s value for advancing knowledge and improving conditions of life

79
Q

Children have the right to be protected from psychological or physical harm in research. If in doubt about the harmful effects of research, what should the researcher do?

A

Obtain the opinion of others, and if harm appears likely, the researcher must either abandon the research, or investigate other methods of conducting the research.

80
Q

What does the principle of informed consent mean when applied to research involving children?

A

Children have the right to have explained to them, in language appropriate to their level of understanding, all aspects of the research that may affect their willingness to participate.
When children are participants, informed consent of parents as well as others who act on the children’s behalf (such as school officials) should be obtained, preferably in writing.
Children, and adults responsible for them, have the right to discontinue participation in the research at any time.

81
Q

The ethical principle of privacy states that children have the right to concealment of their identity on all information collected in the course of research. What else does this right extend to?

A

They also have this right with respect to written reports and any informal discussions about the research.

82
Q

Should children be given the results of any research in which they participate?

A

Yes. The ethical principle of knowledge of results states that children have the right to be informed of the results of research in language that is appropriate to their level of understanding.

83
Q

True or False: If experimental treatments believed to be beneficial are under investigation, children in control groups have the right to alternative beneficial treatments if they are available.

A

True.

This is the ethical principle of beneficial treatments.

Developmental Psychology (7 decks)

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