Chapter 2: Research Methods Flashcards
What does the scientific method entail?
The scientific method involves systematic observation, measurement, experimentation, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.
Define theory.
A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world.
Define hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables.
Define data.
Data refers to the facts and statistics collected for reference or analysis.
Distinguish between a theory and a hypothesis.
A theory is a broad explanation supported by a large body of evidence, while a hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction.
What is a replication study?
A replication study is a research study that attempts to duplicate the results of a previous study to verify its findings.
Why is a replication study important?
Replication studies are important for validating the reliability and generalizability of research findings.
What is the open science movement?
The open science movement advocates for making scientific research, data, and dissemination accessible to all levels of society.
What is the ultimate goal of the open science movement?
The ultimate goal is to enhance transparency, reproducibility, and collaboration in scientific research.
Define meta-analysis.
Meta-analysis is a statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify patterns or overall effects.
What does it mean for a paper to be peer-reviewed?
A peer-reviewed paper has been evaluated and critiqued by experts in the field before publication.
Define variable.
A variable is any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types.
Distinguish between measured and manipulated variables.
Measured variables are observed and recorded, while manipulated variables are intentionally changed to observe effects.
What is an operational definition?
An operational definition specifies the procedures used to measure or manipulate a variable.
What is a self-report measure?
A self-report measure is a method where participants provide subjective data about their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of self-report measures?
Advantages include ease of data collection; disadvantages include potential bias and inaccuracies in responses.
Define social desirability bias.
Social desirability bias is the tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.
What is behavioral observation?
Behavioral observation involves watching and recording the behaviors of individuals in a systematic way.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of behavioral observation?
Advantages include direct data collection; disadvantages include observer bias and the potential for reactivity.
Define reactivity.
Reactivity occurs when individuals alter their behavior due to the awareness of being observed.
What are indirect measures?
Indirect measures assess variables through proxies rather than direct observation.
Give an example of an indirect measure.
An example of an indirect measure is using questionnaires to assess attitudes.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of indirect measures?
Advantages include reduced reactivity; disadvantages include potential inaccuracies in interpretation.
Distinguish between the population of interest and a sample.
The population of interest is the entire group being studied, while a sample is a subset of that population.
What is a random sample?
A random sample is a subset of individuals chosen from a larger population where each individual has an equal chance of being selected.
Why is random sampling important?
Random sampling is important because it helps ensure that the sample is representative of the population.
When is non-random sampling particularly likely to be misleading?
Non-random sampling is particularly likely to be misleading when the sample does not accurately reflect the population.
What is descriptive research?
Descriptive research is a method used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon.
What is a case study?
A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or event.
What is correlational research?
Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them.
How can you interpret the strength and directionality of a relationship from a scatterplot?
The strength is indicated by how closely the points cluster around a line, while directionality is indicated by the slope of the line.
How can you interpret the strength and directionality of a relationship from the correlation coefficient?
The correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to 1, indicating the strength and direction of the relationship.
Why do correlations not prove causation?
Correlations do not prove causation because they do not account for other variables that may influence the relationship.
What are the three criteria that must be met to establish causation?
The three criteria are correlation, temporal precedence, and ruling out alternative explanations.
Why can experiments establish causation while correlational designs cannot?
Experiments can establish causation by manipulating variables and controlling for confounding factors.
Distinguish between an independent variable and dependent variable.
An independent variable is manipulated to observe its effect on a dependent variable, which is measured.
Define random assignment.
Random assignment is the process of assigning participants to different groups in a study by chance.
Why is random assignment important?
Random assignment is important because it helps ensure that groups are equivalent at the start of the experiment.
What is a control group?
A control group is a group that does not receive the experimental treatment and is used for comparison.
Why is a control group important?
A control group is important because it helps isolate the effect of the independent variable.
Distinguish between a mediator and a moderator.
A mediator explains the relationship between two variables, while a moderator affects the strength or direction of that relationship.
Describe the three types of validity.
The three types of validity are internal validity, external validity, and construct validity.
Compare measurement validity and reliability.
Measurement validity refers to how well a test measures what it claims to measure, while reliability refers to the consistency of the measurement.
What is a confound?
A confound is an extraneous variable that correlates with both the independent and dependent variables, potentially leading to erroneous conclusions.
What is a placebo effect?
The placebo effect occurs when participants experience changes due to their expectations rather than the treatment itself.
What are double-blind procedures in the context of an experiment?
Double-blind procedures involve both participants and researchers being unaware of which participants are in the experimental or control group.
Why may double-blind procedures be used?
Double-blind procedures are used to minimize bias and ensure that the results are not influenced by expectations.
Identify factors that threaten internal validity.
Factors include selection bias, history effects, maturation, testing effects, and instrumentation.
What is differential attrition?
Differential attrition occurs when participants drop out of a study at different rates across groups, potentially skewing results.
Define external validity.
External validity refers to the extent to which study findings can be generalized to settings, people, and times beyond the study.
Distinguish between internal validity and external validity.
Internal validity focuses on the accuracy of the study’s conclusions, while external validity focuses on the generalizability of those conclusions.
What is an effect size?
An effect size is a quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon.
What is the logic of null hypothesis testing?
The logic involves testing whether the observed data can be explained by chance alone, leading to a decision about the null hypothesis.
What does it mean for a finding to be statistically significant?
A finding is statistically significant if the observed effect is unlikely to have occurred by chance, typically indicated by a p-value less than 0.05.
What is a p-value?
A p-value is the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as the observed results, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
Identify factors affecting the size of the p-value.
Factors include sample size, effect size, and variability in the data.
Identify and describe the three measures of central tendency.
The three measures are mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequent value).
Distinguish between a data set’s average score and its variability.
The average score indicates the central point of the data, while variability indicates how spread out the data points are.
What is meant by descriptive statistics?
Descriptive statistics summarize and organize data to provide a clear overview.
Define frequency distribution.
A frequency distribution is a summary of how often each value occurs in a dataset.
Define mean.
The mean is the sum of all values divided by the number of values.
Define median.
The median is the middle value when a dataset is ordered from least to greatest.
Define mode.
The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a dataset.
Define standard deviation.
Standard deviation is a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.
What is the function of an Institutional Review Board?
An Institutional Review Board reviews research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.
Identify the three ethical principles guiding evaluation of research proposals.
The three principles are respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.
Define informed consent.
Informed consent is the process of providing potential research participants with adequate information to make an informed decision about participation.
Why is informed consent important?
Informed consent is important to ensure participants understand the risks and benefits of the research.
Why is deception a potential violation of the autonomy principle?
Deception can undermine a participant’s ability to make an informed choice about their involvement in research.
What can be done to minimize the negative impact of deception?
Debriefing participants after the study can help mitigate the effects of deception.
What factors do IRBs consider in their evaluation of research proposals?
IRBs consider risks to participants, potential benefits, and the importance of the knowledge gained.
What are the three guiding principles for conducting research with non-human animal subjects?
The three principles are replacement, reduction, and refinement.
