Chapter 2: Psychological Research Flashcards
Inez Beverly Prosser
1st AAW to earn PhD in psych
Deductive reasoning
- ideas are tested in the real world (drawing valid inferences)
- begins with a generalization that is then used to reach logical conclusions
- scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test their hypothesis
- leads to hypothesis and conclusion —> correct
- experimental research
- using general premises to make specific conclusions
Inductive reasoing
- real world observations which lead to new ideas (so specific to general)
- may or may not be correct usually leads to test theories and not hypothesis
- is the opposite of deductive: uses empirical observations to construct board observations
- case studies
- specific premises to general conclusions
What is the circle of reasoning?
inductive reasoning–> hypothesis or general premise–> deductive reasoning–> empirical observations (and cycle)
Theory:
- well developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena
- too complex so they create hypotheses to test for specific aspects of a theory
Hypothesis:
- testable prediction of how the world will behave if our idea is correct (if, then)
Theory development graph
- theory –> generate hypothesis–> collect data–> analyze data–> summarize data and report findings –> modify theory or confirm theory
Scientific hypothesis…
should be falsifiable (capable of being shown incorrect)
Studies that rely on observation…
- produce incredible amounts of info
- can’t really apply to real world cause of the small sample size
Survey research (pros and cons)
- easily collect data from large samples
- but results are somewhat limited and there are problems with any type of self-reported data
Archival research
- less money
- no control over how or what kind of data was collected
- provides a insight in a number of questions
Correlational research
- archival research, survey, observational research
- meaning researchers can speak to important relationships that might exist between 2 or more variable of interest
- cannot be used to make claims about cause and effect relationships which can also be proven through experiment
clinical or case studies
- focuses on one person or a few individuals
- richness of information but difficult to generalize any observations to the large population
naturalistic observation
- observing behavior in its natural setting
- validity and accuracy
- but no control of behavior you are observing
- need of a lot of time and money
Observer bias
observer unconsciously skews to meet goals
Inter-rater reliability
a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers
3 measures of central tendency
Mean (average), median (lies in the middle, arithmaetic average), mode (the most occuring)
Longitudinal research
- study same group of individuals over a long period of time
- attrition rates/reduction in the number of dropouts is quite high so they hire a ton at the beginning
Cross sectional research
- compares multiple segments of the population at the same time
- short term of money
- but limited by differences that exist between different generations culture
Correlational research
- measure correlation through correlation coefficient (number is from -1 to 1, the closer they are to one the closer relationship between each other)
- if it has a positive correlation they move in the same direction
- if it has a negative correlation they move In opposite direction
Confounding variable
- actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest (3rd variable that influences the independent and dependent variable)
- A confounding variable (confounder) is a factor other than the one being studied that is associated both with the disease (dependent variable) and with the factor being studied (independent variable). A confounding variable may distort or mask the effects of another variable on the disease in question.
Illusory correlations/false correlations
- no relationship at all
- make the mistakes of illusory correlations especially with unsystematic observations
Confirmation bias
- ignoring the infor that could prove false
Experimental group/control group
- experi group: gets the experimental manipulation
- control group: regular/no manipulation
- they should be treated the same except for the manipulation
Operational definition
- specific guidelines (a precise description of our variables)
Experimenter bias
- possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study
Single blind
- participants are unaware of which group they are in
Double blind
- the same as single blind but the observers were blind too
Placebo effect
- deception (expecting can make it happen)
Dependent variable
- measures to see how much effect the independent variable had
Independent variable
- manipulated or controlled by the experiment
Random sample (assignment)
- subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
- equal chance of being assigned
Quasi-experimental
- attempts to establish cause and effect relationships without randomization
Reliability
- refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result
- Inter-rate reliability
- internal consistency: the degree to which different items on a survey that measure the same thing correlate with one another
- test-retest reliability: the degree to which the outcomes of a particular measure remains consistent over multiple administrations
- split-half reliability: score each half of the test separately and then compare the score
Validity
- refers to the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what its supposed to measure
Ecological validity
degree to which research results generalize to real-world applications
Construct validity
degree to which a given variable actually captures or measures what it is intended to measure
Face validity
degree to which a given variable seems valid on the surface
Informed consent
form with written description of what the participant is to except solely voluntary and info remains confidential (debriefing of things like deception)
Ebbinghaus curve
the forgetting curve that hypothesizes the decline of memory retention in time
Spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieve through massed study or practice
Steps of the scientific method
- define the problem
- choose research design
- collect data
- analyze data
- report findings
- replication
Stratified sampling
- allows researcher to ensure sample reflects the percentages of the larger population
Descriptive research
- to observe and record behavior
- case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations
- no control of variables
Correlational research
- to detect naturally occurring relationships to assess ho well one variable predicts another
-survey, statistical association - doesn’t specify cause and effect
Experimental research
- to explore cause and effect
- manipulate one or more factors
- sometimes not feasible
Positively skewed distribution
- scores are concentrated at the low end of the distribution
Negatively skewed distribution
- scores are concentrated at the high end of the distribution
Bimodal distribution
- frequency distribution in which there are two high points rather than one
Measures of variability (how much the scores in a data set vary from each other and from the mean)
- Range: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
- Standard Deviation: the measure of the average difference between each of the values in a data set
- if the scores are clusted around a central point, the measures of variability will be smaller as well as the SD and R
Normal curve (bell shaped)
where mean, mode, and median sit at the centre of the curve
Correlation = (graph)
- Scatterplot (positive, negative, and none)
Inferential Statistics
- statistics that can determine whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected
P-value
- a measure of confidence in the observed difference
- allows the researchers to determine the probability that the difference was due to chance (p value of less than .05 is the common criterion for statistical significance
Sampling bias/Hawthorne effect
being selected to be in a group of people to participate in an experiment will affect the performance of that group regardless of what is done to those individuals
Halo effect
perception distortion that affects the way people interpret the info about someone (like ur pre-conception)
