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Psychology > Chapter 2: Psychological Research > Flashcards

Chapter 2: Psychological Research Flashcards

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1
Q

Inez Beverly Prosser

A

1st AAW to earn PhD in psych

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2
Q

Deductive reasoning

A
  • ideas are tested in the real world (drawing valid inferences)
  • begins with a generalization that is then used to reach logical conclusions
  • scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test their hypothesis
  • leads to hypothesis and conclusion —> correct
  • experimental research
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3
Q

Inductive reasoing

A
  • real world observations which lead to new ideas (so specific to general)
  • may or may not be correct usually leads to test theories and not hypothesis
  • is the opposite of deductive: uses empirical observations to construct board observations
  • case studies
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4
Q

What is the circle of reasoning?

A

inductive reasoning–> hypothesis or general premise–> deductive reasoning–> empirical observations (and cycle)

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5
Q

Theory:

A
  • well developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena
  • too complex so they create hypotheses to test for specific aspects of a theory
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6
Q

Hypothesis:

A
  • testable prediction of how the world will behave if our idea is correct (if, then)
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7
Q

Theory development graph

A
  • theory –> generate hypothesis–> collect data–> analyze data–> summarize data and report findings –> modify theory or confirm theory
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8
Q

Scientific hypothesis…

A

should be falsifiable (capable of being shown incorrect)

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9
Q

Studies that rely on observation…

A
  • produce incredible amounts of info
  • can’t really apply to real world cause of the small sample size
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10
Q

Survey research (pros and cons)

A
  • easily collect data from large samples
  • but results are somewhat limited and there are problems with any type of self-reported data
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11
Q

Archival research

A
  • less money
  • no control over how or what kind of data was collected
  • provides a insight in a number of questions
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12
Q

Correlational research

A
  • archival research, survey, observational research
  • meaning researchers can speak to important relationships that might exist between 2 or more variable of interest
  • cannot be used to make claims about cause and effect relationships which can also be proven through experiment
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13
Q

clinical or case studies

A
  • focuses on one person or a few individuals
  • richness of information but difficult to generalize any observations to the large population
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14
Q

naturalistic observation

A
  • observing behavior in its natural setting
  • validity and accuracy
  • but no control of behavior you are observing
  • need of a lot of time and money
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15
Q

Observer bias

A

observer unconsciously skews to meet goals

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16
Q

Inter-rater reliability

A

a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers

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17
Q

3 measures of central tendency

A

Mean (average), median (lies in the middle, arithmaetic average), mode (the most occuring)

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18
Q

Longitudinal research

A
  • study same group of individuals over a long period of time
  • attrition rates/reduction in the number of dropouts is quite high so they hire a ton at the beginning
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19
Q

Cross sectional research

A
  • compares multiple segments of the population at the same time
  • short term of money
  • but limited by differences that exist between different generations culture
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20
Q

Correlational research

A
  • measure correlation through correlation coefficient (number is from -1 to 1, the closer they are to one the closer relationship between each other)
  • if it has a positive correlation they move in the same direction
  • if it has a negative correlation they move In opposite direction
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21
Q

Confounding variable

A
  • actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest (3rd variable that influences the independent and dependent variable)
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22
Q

Illusory correlations/false correlations

A
  • no relationship at all
  • make the mistakes of illusory correlations especially with unsystematic observations
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23
Q

Confirmation bias

A
  • ignoring the infor that could prove false
24
Q

Experimental group/control group

A
  • experi group: gets the experimental manipulation
  • control group: regular/no manipulation
  • they should be treated the same except for the manipulation
25
Q

Operational definition

A
  • specific guidelines (a precise description of our variables)
26
Q

Experimenter bias

A
  • possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study
27
Q

Single blind

A
  • participants are unaware of which group they are in
28
Q

Double blind

A
  • the same as single blind but the observers were blind too
29
Q

Placebo effect

A
  • deception (expecting can make it happen)
30
Q

Dependent variable

A
  • measures to see how much effect the independent variable had
31
Q

Independent variable

A
  • manipulated or controlled by the experiment
32
Q

Random sample (assignment)

A
  • subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
  • equal chance of being assigned
33
Q

Quasi-experimental

A
  • attempts to establish cause and effect relationships without randomization
34
Q

Reliability

A
  • refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result
  • Inter-rate reliability
  • internal consistency: the degree to which different items on a survey that measure the same thing correlate with one another
  • test-retest reliability: the degree to which the outcomes of a particular measure remains consistent over multiple administrations
  • split-half reliability: score each half of the test separately and then compare the score
35
Q

Validity

A
  • refers to the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what its supposed to measure
36
Q

Ecological validity

A

degree to which research results generalize to real-world applications

37
Q

Construct validity

A

degree to which a given variable actually captures or measures what it is intended to measure

38
Q

Face validity

A

degree to which a given variable seems valid on the surface

39
Q

Informed consent

A

form with written description of what the participant is to except solely voluntary and info remains confidential (debriefing of things like deception)

40
Q

Ebbinghaus curve

A

the forgetting curve that hypothesizes the decline of memory retention in time

41
Q

Spacing effect

A

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention than is achieve through massed study or practice

42
Q

Steps of the scientific method

A
  • define the problem
  • choose research design
  • collect data
  • analyze data
  • report findings
  • replication
43
Q

Stratified sampling

A
  • allows researcher to ensure sample reflects the percentages of the larger population
44
Q

Descriptive research

A
  • to observe and record behavior
  • case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observations
  • no control of variables
45
Q

Correlational research

A
  • to detect naturally occurring relationships to assess ho well one variable predicts another
    -survey, statistical association
  • doesn’t specify cause and effect
46
Q

Experimental research

A
  • to explore cause and effect
  • manipulate one or more factors
  • sometimes not feasible
47
Q

Positively skewed distribution

A
  • scores are concentrated at the low end of the distribution
48
Q

Negatively skewed distribution

A
  • scores are concentrated at the high end of the distribution
49
Q

Bimodal distribution

A
  • frequency distribution in which there are two high points rather than one
50
Q

Measures of variability (how much the scores in a data set vary from each other and from the mean)

A
  • Range: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
  • Standard Deviation: the measure of the average difference between each of the values in a data set
  • if the scores are clusted around a central point, the measures of variability will be smaller as well as the SD and R
51
Q

Normal curve (bell shaped)

A

where mean, mode, and median sit at the centre of the curve

52
Q

Correlation = (graph)

A
  • Scatterplot (positive, negative, and none)
53
Q

Inferential Statistics

A
  • statistics that can determine whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected
54
Q

P-value

A
  • a measure of confidence in the observed difference
  • allows the researchers to determine the probability that the difference was due to chance (p value of less than .05 is the common criterion for statistical significance
55
Q

Sampling bias/Hawthorne effect

A

being selected to be in a group of people to participate in an experiment will affect the performance of that group regardless of what is done to those individuals

56
Q

Halo effect

A

perception distortion that affects the way people interpret the info about someone (like ur pre-conception)

Psychology (3 decks)

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