Chapter 2 Principles of Science and Systems revision

Question 1

What are the Basic Principles of Science?

Answer 1

1. Empiricism
2. Uniformitarianism
3. Parsimony
4. Uncertainty
5. Repeatability
6. Proof is elusive
7. Testable questions

Question 2

Empiricism in science is …

Answer 2

we can learn about the world by careful observation of empirical phenomena; we can expect to understand laws and processes.

Question 3

Uniformitarianism in science is …

Answer 3

basic patterns and processes are uniform across time and space.

Question 4

Parsimony in science is …

Answer 4

when two plausible explanations are equally reasonable, the simpler one is preferable. Also called Ockham’s Razor.

Question 5

Uncertainty in science is …

Answer 5

knowledge changes as new evidence appears, and explanations (theories) change with new evidence.

Question 6

Repeatability in science …

Answer 6

there is an expectation that tests and experiments can be repeated.

Question 7

Proof is elusive in science …

Answer 7

we rarely expect science to provide absolute proof, since new evidence can undermine our current standing.

Question 8

Testable questions in science …

Answer 8

to find out whether a theory is correct, it must we tested.

Question 9

Logical ordering of steps:

Answer 9

1. Identify question
2. Form a testable hypothesis
3. Collect data to test the hypothesis
4. Interpret results (if hyp. is rejected, step 2)
5. Report for peer review
6. Publish findings.

Question 10

Inductive reasoning …

Answer 10

deriving a general rule from observations.

Question 11

Deductive reasoning …

Answer 11

deducing an explanation from general principles.

Question 12

Scientific theory refers to …

Answer 12

an idea that is overwhelming back up with evidence.

Question 13

Experimental design: Natural Experiments are …

Answer 13

observed natural events and interpreting a casual relationship (e.g. a link between colds and sleep deprivation).

Question 14

Experimental design: Manipulative Experiments are …

Answer 14

where conditions are modified deliberately, and all other variables are held constant (can be referred to as a controlled study).

Question 15

A controlled study:

Answer 15

by comparing a treatment (exposed) group and a control (unexposed) group. Blind experiments are important here.

Question 16

Blind and double-blind experiments are …

Answer 16

blind experiments: researcher doesn’t know which group is treated until after the analysis of the results.
double-blind experiments: neither the subject nor the researcher knows who is in the treatment group and who is in the control group.

Question 17

Independent variable (IV):

Answer 17

the stable and unchanged variable.

Question 18

Dependent variable (DV):

Answer 18

the affected and changed variable.

Question 19

Define ‘ecosystem’

Answer 19

a complex assemblage of animals, plants and their environment, through which materials and energy move.

Question 20

Define ‘systems’

Answer 20

networks of interdependent components and process, with materials and energy flowing from one component to another, that together have properties beyond those of individual parts.

Question 21

Homeostasis is …

Answer 21

the ability to maintain stability.

Question 22

State variables (or compartments) …

Answer 22

store energy, water and matter; e.g. animals and plants.

Question 23

Open systems are …

Answer 23

those that receive inputs from their surroundings and produce outputs.

Question 24

Closed systems …

Answer 24

exchanges no matter or energy with its surroundings; like a fishbowl (although it receives energy from the sun) it doesn’t have much, or any, interactions.

Question 25

Positive vs. Negative feedback:

Answer 25

Positive feedback is a self-perpetuating process; whereas Negative feedback, is a process that suppresses change.

Question 26

What are ‘disturbances’?
What are ‘positive disturbances’?
What are ‘negative disturbances’?

Answer 26

Disturbances are events that can destabilize systems.
A positive disturbance means that the ecosystem can recover from the disaster, or need the disturbance to regenerate (resilience).
A negative disturbance means that the ecosystem struggles to, or cannot, recover from the disaster.

Question 27

What is ‘resilience’ (in regards to positive disturbances)?

Answer 27

an ecosystem’s ability to recover from a disaster.

Question 28

What is ‘state shift’ (in regards to negative disturbances)?

Answer 28

state shift means that conditions do not return to normal after a disaster.

Question 29

What are ‘emergent properties’?

Answer 29

multiple uses; for example, a tree provides shade, habitat and food, stores carbon, and cools the ground.

Question 30

Scientific consensus …

Answer 30

ideas and information are exchanged, debated, tested and retested to arrive at a scientific consensus. It is a general agreement among informed scholars.

Question 31

Paradigm shifts …

Answer 31

occur when a majority of scientists accept that the old explanation no longer explains new observations.

Question 32

Environmental attitude 1. any person who believes that the condition & nature of the environment are always important factors in any decision made relating to the use or management of land, water and resources.

Answer 32

Environmentalist

Question 33

Environmental attitude 2. the environment, nature, deserves to exist for its own sake, regardless of its usefulness to us.

Answer 33

Biocentric preservation

Question 34

Environmental attitude 3. social move towards environmental protection & conservation through increasing awareness of environmental issues.

Answer 34

Environmentalism

Question 35

Environmental attitude 4. the basis that the environment should be saved not because it is beautiful or because it shelters wild life, but only to provide homes and jobs for people.

Answer 35

Utilitarianism conservation