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PSYC 101 > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What did the Dogmatists believe was the best way to understand illness?

A

The best way to understand illness is to develop theories on how the body functions.

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2
Q

What does Dogmatism mean?

A

To cling to one’s beliefs and assumptions.

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3
Q

What did the Empiricists believe?

A

Accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation,

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4
Q

What is the Scientific Method?

A

A procedure for using empirical evidence to establish facts.

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5
Q

What is a Theory? Give an example.

A

A theory is a hypothetical explanation for natural phenomena.

For example, I could theorize that bats navigate by making sounds and listening for the echo.

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6
Q

What is a Hypothesis? Give an example.

A

A Hypothesis is a prediction that can be proved true or false (falsifiable).

For example, if bats really do navigate by making sounds and listening for the echo, then my hypothesis could be: deaf bats should not be able to navigate.

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7
Q

What are the three main reasons people are so hard to study?

A

People are highly complex, variable, and reactive.

Complex: There’s a lot going on and we don’t really know how memories or our brain works

Variable: Individuals react differently to the same things

Reactive: We may act differently when we are being watched.

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8
Q

What is an operational definition?

A

When we want to measure something we first need to define what it is so we can understand how best to measure it.

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9
Q

What is construct validity?

A

Construct validity is the extent to which a definition or measurement accurately describes or measures a construct.

An operational definition should have construct validity, or in other words, the definition should adequately characterize the property it is trying to define.

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10
Q

If we want to measure something, what are the first two steps?

A
  1. Create an operational definition of the property we want to measure.
  2. Find a way to detect (measure) that property.
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11
Q

The instruments we use to measure should have which two characteristics? Explain.

A

Reliability:
The tool needs to be able to measure the absence of differences or changes of magnitude in a property.
Ex. Can detect that the number of smiles was the same on Tuesday as on Wednesday.

Power:
The tool needs to be able to measure the presence of differences or changes of magnitude in a property.
Ex. Can detect different amounts of smiling on Wednesday and Thursday.

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12
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

Aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects.)

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13
Q

How do we control for demand characteristics? (4 methods)

A

Natural Observation:
Observe people in their natural settings without them knowing. Not always possible.

Privacy:
Give people privacy or anonymity so their answers aren’t tied to their info.

Control:
Measure something people can’t control like their pupil dilation in response to reading a gossip magazine.

Unawareness:
Limit what the participants know about the study, this could apply to the observers or research assistants as well.

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14
Q

What is an observation bias?

A

The tendency for observers’ expectations to influence both what they believe they observed and what they actually observed.

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15
Q

You can control for observation bias by creating a ____________ study, which is a study in where neither the researcher nor the participant knows how the participants are expected to behave

A

Double-blind study

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16
Q

What is a frequency distribution?

A

A graph with all the data from your measurements.

Ex. a graph with the number of people of the y axis and their happiness ratings on the x axis.

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17
Q

What does the normal distribution look like on a graph?

A

Data is highest in the middle with equal distribution on both sides, it is symmetrical and creates a “bell-curve.”

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18
Q

What does central tendency mean?

A

The central tendency typically lies close to the center or midpoint of the frequency distribution.

Ex. Friend says “I am doing pretty well” in regard to happiness over the month.

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19
Q

What does variability mean in regard to frequency distribution?

A

The extent to which the measurements in a frequency distribution differ from each other.

Ex. Friend says “I’ve been having some ups and downs” they are explaining the variability among their happiness ratings.

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20
Q

What are the most common descriptions of central tendency? Describe them. (3)

A

Mean: The average of all the points
Mode: The most commonly chosen/measured variable
Median: The middle point of the data

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21
Q

If the Mean, Mode, and Median, are all equal then the distribution is ___________

A

normal

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22
Q

If the Mean and Median are higher than the Mode then the distribution is _____________

A

positively skewed

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23
Q

If the Mean and Median are lower than the Mode then the distribution is _____________

A

negatively skewed

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24
Q

What are the two ways to describe variability?

A

Range & Standard Deviation

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25
Q

What is the range?

A

The total range from lowest to highest points on a graph.

Ex. Mean, mode and median might all be around 4C for the annual temperature in Winnipeg, but without range, we wouldn’t know that it gets to be -40 in the winter and +30 in the summer.

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26
Q

What is Standard Deviation

A

While range is important, it may give us too great of extremes, the standard deviation is a statistic that describes how each of the measurements in a frequency distribution differs from the mean. How far on average various measurements are from the mean.

Ex. The standard deviation of annual temperatures in Winnipeg is 14C, on average it is no warmer than +18C and no colder than -10C.

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27
Q

What is a variable?

A

A variable is a property that can take on different values.

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28
Q

What does it mean when variables are correlated?

A

Correlation occurs when variations in the value of one variable are synchronized with variations in the value of the other.

Ex. When y increases by one point x increases by one point.

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29
Q

How do you measure the strength of a correlation?

A

Correlation Coefficient

r = 1, perfect positive correlation
r = -1, perfect negative correlation
r = 0, no correlations
30
Q

What is the third variable problem?

A

A natural correlation between two variables is not evidence of a causal relationship between them because a third variable might be causing them both.

Ex. Ice cream sales and Polio cases both increase but the third variable is that it is summer. Summer is causing ice cream sales to rise, and polio to spread quicker independent of one another.

31
Q

How do we establish causation between variables?

A

Experimentation

32
Q

What two things do we do in an experiment to figure out causation?

A

Manipulation & Random Assignment

33
Q

What does manipulation mean in regard to experimentation?

A

In a controlled experiment we can manipulate one of the variables to see what happens.

Ex. We think the x-box is slowing down the wifi, but it could also be that in the evening when the x-box is on the rest of the neighborhood is also using a lot of wifi. We could manipulate the variable by turning the x-box on and off in the morning when evening neighborhood usage isn’t as great, and observe what happens to the wifi speed. If the x-box slows the wifi then the x-box is the problem, if it doesn’t then the neighborhood usage is the issue.

34
Q

What does random assignment mean in regard to experimentation?

A

The researchers randomly decide which conditions the participants are exposed to.

Ex. When studying violence in children who play violent and non-violent video games, researchers would randomly assign the sample to violent game conditions and non-violent game conditions, because the researchers are assigning and the kids aren’t choosing for themselves we can eliminate lack of parental supervision as a variable.

35
Q

What are the three steps in an experiment?

A
  1. Manipulate
  2. Measure
  3. Compare
36
Q

What are the manipulated and measured variables called?

A

The independent and dependant variables.

Ex. The x-box is the independent variable that you manipulate (turn off and on) and the dependent variable is the speed of the wifi (which you measure when you turn the x-box on and off)

37
Q

How do we know if the changes to the independent variable caused the changes to the value of the dependent variable?

A

If on average the results were correlated then we know that that the independent variable caused changes in the dependant variable. The correlation here is sufficient to determine causation because we have adjusted for the third variable problem.

38
Q

Why is self-selection a problem?

A

If the kid chooses which game they want to play or the researchers choose which game based on their interaction with the kids then they are not eliminating the third variable.

39
Q

What does it mean when random assignment has failed?

A

Random assignment should mean that the sample is diverse and represents the larger population, however, because it is random it may not always be perfectly representative which would mean it failed.

Psychologists generally do not accept the results of their experiments unless the calculation suggests that there is less than a 5% chance that those results would have occurred if the random assignment had failed.

40
Q

What is Content Validity?

A

The content is representative of what the study is trying to find out.

Ex. The items on a test fairly represent the elements that the test aims to cover. A PSYC 101 midterm will have only what was covered in the course.

41
Q

What is Face Validity?

A

Does the study actually look like it measures what it is intended to measure?

Ex. In a study on aggression, if it’s face valid when I read the questions I could come to understand that it’s related to aggression. An example of something that is not face valid would be a study looking at the ratio of fingers to measure aggression. It’s not clear to the person being studied that their finger size is related to aggression.

42
Q

What is Concurrent Validity?

A

Scores from this new way of measuring agree with scores from a well-established way of measuring that is given at the same time (that’s why it’s called concurrent).

There is a consistent relationship between the two sets of scores.

Ex. If I am measuring height with a new type of ruler, then the results should be the same as measuring the height with a standard measuring tape.

43
Q

What is Predictive Validity?

A

If the measure has predictive validity, the measure should accurately predict something

Ex. If I am measuring social anxiety, we might be able to predict something correlated to social anxiety, like the number of events attended in a week, high anxiety = few events, low anxiety = many events

Ex. SAT scores measure college preparedness, high SAT scores should predict success in college.

44
Q

What is Convergent Validity?

A

Measurements that should be related, are related.

If we have different methods that are measuring the same underlying construct then those methods should give scores that are correlated.

Ex if you measure aggression in children by a written questionnaire and observe them on the playground later those two measurements/results should be related.

45
Q

What is Divergent Validity?

A

Measurements that should not be related, aren’t related.

The same method measuring different constructs gives scores that are not correlated.

We use divergent validity when we are concerned with other constructs or variables that could influence our measurements.

Ex. Kids on a playground being observed for aggression, we want to make sure that the observers aren’t conflating energy levels for aggression, so we would measure both and we should find that the scores are not correlated, ie, the same kids exhibiting aggression are not all the same as the ones who are just high energy.

46
Q

What makes for a good measure? (2)

A

We want to ensure our ways of measuring are valid and reliable.

47
Q

Why do we want our measurements to be reliable?

A

A reliable measure produces consistent results.

48
Q

What does “Measured score = True score + error” mean?

A

Ex. If on Monday I get 100 on an IQ test, Tuesday I get 98, and Friday 105, these differences (or errors) might be because the test is measuring something other than my IQ.

If I am tired I might score lower, so my measured scores on the test (IQ=98) would be my true score (maybe my IQ is 105 but I was stressed and tired) + the error (taking into account being stressed or tired).

Lots of error means it’s unreliable, a small amount of error means it’s more reliable.

49
Q

What is test-retest reliability?

A

Scores should be consistent with what we would expect from the same test from day-to-day.

Ex. An IQ test taken a week apart by the same person should not have dramatically different results, it should be consistent. If it’s inconsistent we might have an unreliable test.

50
Q

What is internal reliability

A

Internal reliability is where you get consistent results from the different parts of a measure.

Ex. An IQ test has many questions, so how reliable are these questions? Do they all reliably measure the different elements of intelligence?

51
Q

What is interrater reliablity?

A

Consistent results from different raters/observers who are measuring the same thing, or in other words how reliable two different people scoring using the same measurement is.

52
Q

We say that an experiment is ___________, we mean that everything inside the experiment is working exactly as it should in order for us to use its results to draw conclusions about the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables

A

internally valid

53
Q

What does it mean for an experiment to be externally valid?

A

External validity is an attribute of an experiment in which variables have been operationally defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way.

54
Q

What is a case study?

A

A sample is just one person.

55
Q

What is random sampling?

A

A technique for selecting participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.

56
Q

What is non-random sampling?

A

A technique for selecting participants where the researchers select their participants.

Ex. If we are particularly interested in people with slow concussion recovery, then we wouldn’t just randomly select from a group of people who had concussions, we would select people whose concussions were of interest to our research.

57
Q

What is replication and why is it important in experiments?

A

Scientists replicate an experiment that uses the same procedures as a previous experiment but with a new sample from the same population.

If we can replicate the results then the study gains confidence, if we can’t the first study might have been a fluke (5% chance of having the random assignment fail)

58
Q

Explain what type 1 and type 2 errors are.

A

Type I error (false positive)
Occurs when researchers conclude that there is a relationship between two variables when in fact there is not.
Type II error (false negative)
Occurs when researchers conclude that there is not a relationship between two variables when in fact there is.

59
Q

How can we confirm type 1 and type 2 errors were not made in an experiment?

A

Replication

60
Q

Who developed the scientific method? What was it originally called?

A

Sir Francis Bacon developed the Baconian Method, now known as the scientific method.

61
Q

What are the enemies of critical thinking? (2)

A
  1. The tendency to see what we expect or want to see

2. The tendency to ignore what we can’t see

62
Q

What did the Nuremberg Code of 1947 and then the Declaration of Helsinki in 1964 do?

A

They spelled out rules for the ethical treatment of the people who participate in experiments.

63
Q

What was the Tuskegee experiment?

A

399 African American men with syphilis were denied treatment so that researchers could observe the progression of the disease.

64
Q

What are the American Psychological Association’s Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct’s most important points? (7)

A

Informed consent - People need to consent

Freedom from coercion - Cant be coerced into doing the study in any way

Protection from harm - Need to have all possible precautions to protect participants from harm

Risk–benefit analysis - the benefits need to outweigh the risks.

Deception - Can’t lie to people about any harm that may come from the study. Can lie about what the study is for if need be but must be debriefed after.

Debriefing - Must explain the true nature of the study, and restore participants to their original state.

Confidentiality - Protect the identity and privacy of participants.

65
Q

What are REBs?

A

Research Ethics Boards

66
Q

What are the three R’s for using animals in a study?

A

Replacement
Researchers have to prove there is no alternative to using animals in research and that the use of animals is justified by the scientific or clinical value of the study.

Reduction
Researchers must use the smallest number of animals possible to achieve the research.

Refinement
Means that procedures must be modified to minimize the discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animals.

67
Q

What are the obligations of the Honour System?

A

Report truthfully on what they did and what they found.

Share credit fairly by including as co-authors of their reports the other people who contributed to the work, as well as by mentioning in their reports the other scientists who have done related work.

Share their data.

68
Q

What is the difference between discrete and continuous variables?

A

Continuous variables can take on an unlimited number of values between the lowest and highest points of measurement

Ex. Age 0-…, income 0-…

Discrete Variables have a limited number of possible values

Ex. Sex (Male, Female, Intersex)

69
Q

What does it mean for an experiment to have internal validity?

A

The ability to establish a cause and effect relationship between your dependent and dependent variable. Looking within the study at how valid the study was.

70
Q

What does it mean for an experiment to have external validity?

A

The ability to draw conclusions or generalize the findings to people and situations outside of the research study (ex. Participants and artificial situation).

Looking outside the controlled experiment to see if what we found in the study holds true in real life.

71
Q

How can we ensure external validity and our ability to make generalizations from our studies?

A

Operational Definitions:
If we want to generalize outside of the study it is important to pick operational definitions that actually relate to real-life situations.

The sample is Representative:
Our sample needs to be representative of the larger population we are hoping to generalize for.

PSYC 101 (2 decks)

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