Chapter 2

Question 1

Cartesian dualism

Answer 1

the universeis composed of two elements: (1) physical matter,which behaves according to the laws of nature and is thusa suitable object of scientific investigation; and (2) thehuman mind (soul, self, or spirit), which lacks physicalsubstance, controls human behavior, obeys no naturallaws, and is thus the appropriate purview of the Church.

Question 2

ethology

Answer 2

(the study of animal behavior in the wild), dominant approach to study of behavior in Europe

Question 3

instinctive behaviors

Answer 3

behaviors that occur in all like members of a species, even when there seems to have been no opportunity for them to have been learned

Question 4

2 lines of evidence against physiological/psychological debate

Answer 4

1) the many demonstrations that even the most complex psychological changes (e.g., changes in self-awareness, memory, or emotion) can be produced by damage to, or stimulation of, parts of the brain2) demonstrations that some nonhuman species, particularly primate species, possess abilities that were once assumed to be purely psychological and thus purely human

Question 5

asomatognosia

Answer 5

deficiency in the awareness of parts of one s own body.Asomatognosia typically involves the left side of the body and usually results from damage to theright parietal lobe

Question 6

all behavior is the product of interactionsamong three factors:

Answer 6

(1) the organisms genetic endowment, which is a product of its evolution; (2) its experience; and (3) its perception of the current situation.

Question 7

understand the biology of behavior schematic illustration on pg 25!!!

Answer 7

k

Question 8

three important points about evolution of humain brain, considering changes in brain stem and cerebrum:

Answer 8

+ It has increased in size during evolution.+ Most of the increase in size has occurred in thecerebrum.+ An increase in the number of convolutions folds on the cerebral surface has greatly increased the volume of the cerebral cortex, the outermost layer of cerebral tissue

Question 9

autosomal chromosomes

Answer 9

typical chromosomes that come in matched pairs

Question 10

sex chromosomes

Answer 10

.the one non-autosomal chromosome pair.the pair of chromosomes that determines an individual s sex

Question 11

two types of sex chromosomes

Answer 11

There are two types of sex chromosomes, X and Y, and the two look different and carry different genes.Female mammals have two X chromosomes, and male mammals have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.

Question 12

sex-linked traits

Answer 12

Traits that are influenced by genes on the sex chromosomes

Question 13

Virtually all sex-linked traits arecontrolled by genes on the: y?:

Answer 13

X chromosome because the Y chromosome is small and carries few genes

Question 14

traits controlled by genes on the X chromosome

Answer 14

-occur more frequently in one sex than the other-if dominant, it occurs more frequently in females-Females have twice the chance of inheriting the dominant gene because they have twice the number of X chromosomes

Question 15

recessive sex-linked traits occur more frequently in _____: y?

Answer 15

males. The reason is that recessive sex-linkedtraits are manifested only in females who possess two of the recessive genes one on each of their X chromosomes whereas the traits are manifested in all males who possess the gene because they have only one X chromosome. The classic example of a recessive sex-linked trait is color blindness. Because the color-blindness gene is quite rare, females almost never inherit two of them and thus almost never possess the disorder; in contrast, every male who possesses one color-blindness gene is color blind.

Question 16

______ have twice the chance of inheriting the dominant gene because…

Answer 16

females. because they have twice the number of X chromosomes

Question 17

proteins

Answer 17

-long chains of amino acids-they control the physiological activities ofcells and are important components of cellular structure

Question 18

how do different cells develop if they all contain exactly the same genes?

Answer 18

The answer lies in stretches of DNA that lack structural genes - indeed, although all genes wereonce assumed to be structural genes, those genes compose only a small portion of each chromosome-these stretches include enhancers

Question 19

Enhancers

Answer 19

-stretches of DNA whose function is to determine whether particular structural genes initiate the synthesis of proteins and at what rate (gene expression)-Enhancers are like switches, and like switches, they can be regulated in two ways: They can be turned up or they can be turned down.

Question 20

transcription factors

Answer 20

Proteins that bind to DNA and influence the extent to which genes are expressed-Many of the transcription factors that control enhancers are influenced by signals received bythe cell from its environment

Question 21

RNA

Answer 21

ribonucleic acid-like DNA except that it contains the nucleotidebase uracil instead of thymine and has a phosphateand ribose backbone instead of a phosphate and deoxyribose (the D in DNA) backbone

Question 22

mRNA

Answer 22

messenger RNA-carries the genetic code out of the nucleus of the cell.Once it has left the nucleus, the messenger RNA attaches itself to one of the many ribosomes in the cell’s cytoplasm

Question 23

codon

Answer 23

-Each group of three consecutive nucleotide bases along the messenger RNA strand-Each codon instructs the ribosome to add 1 of the 20 different kinds of amino acids to the protein that it is constructing; for example, the sequence guanine-guanine-adenine instructs the ribosome to add the amino acid glycine

Question 24

tRNA

Answer 24

transfer RNA-Each kind of amino acid is carried to the ribosome by molecules of tRNA (during protein synthesis)-as the ribosome reads a codon, it attracts a transfer RNA molecule that is attached to the appropriate amino acid

Question 25

gene expression: transcription

Answer 25

1st phase, transcription of the DNA base sequence code to an RNA base-sequence code1. small section of chromosome containing desired gene unravels, the unraveled portion serve as a template for the2. transcription of a short strand of RNA, the transcribed strand is called mRNA3. mRNA carries the genetic code out of the nucleus, attaches to a ribosome in the cytoplasm4. onto TRANSLATION

Question 26

gene expression: translation

Answer 26

2nd phase, translation of the RNA base-sequence code into a sequence of amino acids (protein)1. the ribosome moves along the strand of mRNA, (see image in text 39, LIKE A ZIPPER) translating the genetic code as it proceeds2. Each group of three consecutive nucleotide bases along the messenger RNA strand is called a codon. Each codon instructs the ribosome to add 1 of the 20 different kinds of amino acids to the protein that it is constructing3. Each kind of amino acid is carried to the ribosome by molecules of transfer RNA; as the ribosome reads a codon, it attracts a transfer RNA molecule that is attached to the appropriate amino acid.4. the ribosome reads the entire mRNA strand until it reaches a codon that tells it the protein is complete5. the protein is released into the cytoplasm

Question 27

mitochondria, like the nucleus of a cell, also contain:

Answer 27

DNA, called MITOCHONDRIAL DNA

Question 28

Mitochondria

Answer 28

are the energy-generating structures located in the cytoplasm of every cell, including neurons (see Chapter 3). Human mitochondrial genes are inherited solely from one s mother.

Question 29

mutations develop in mitochondrialDNA at a:

Answer 29

reasonably consistent rate. As a result,mitochondrial DNA can be used as an evolutionaryclock. Analysis of mutations of mitochondrial DNA in human populations has added to the substantial evidence from anthropological, archeological, linguistic, and other genetic analyses that homininsevolved in Africa and gradually spread over the earth

Question 30

human genome project

Answer 30

-it was a loosely knit collaboration of major research institutions and individual research teams in several countries. -The purpose of this collaboration was to compile a map of the sequence of all 3 billion bases that compose human chromosomes. This ambitious task was completed in 2001,marking the beginning of the modern era of genetics research.

Question 31

conclusions from the human genome project

Answer 31

humans have a relatively small number of genes.20,000 genes;mice have about the same number, and corn has many more.structural genes (protein-encoding) only constitute about 2% of human DNA!

Question 32

Epigenetics

Answer 32

-focuses on mechanisms that influencethe expression of genes without changing thegenes themselves-Epigenetic mechanisms are assumed to be the means by which a small number of genes are able to orchestrate the development of humans in all their complexity

Question 33

Four currently influential lines of inquiry in epigenetics

Answer 33

-Active Nongene DNA-MicroRNAs-Alternative Splicing-Monoallelic Expression

Question 34

Active Nongene DNA

Answer 34

-long assumed only function of DNA was synth of proteins (2% of genes), making the rest PSEUDOGENES or JUNK DNA-today, many areas of active nongene DNA (the other genes) are being discovered-many of these areas control gene expression!

Question 35

MicroRNAs

Answer 35

-MicroRNAs are short single strands of RNA.-Function until recently was a mystery and they were ignored-100s types of MicroRNAs, major effects on gene expression through actions on enhancers and messenger RNA-influence brain development, synapse function, and disruption associated with neurodegenerative disorders

Question 36

Alternative Splicing

Answer 36

occurs when some strands of messenger RNA are broken apart and the pieces are spliced to new segments. -allows a single gene to encode morethan one protein-Alternative splicing is particularly prevalent in neural tissue.

Question 37

Monoallelic Expression

Answer 37

-Exception to the two copies (alleles) of each gene generalization-In some cases, one of the two alleles is inactivatedby as yet unidentified epigenetic mechanisms, and the other is expressed a phenomenon called monoallelic expression-sometimes which one expressed depends on whether inherited from mom or dad

Question 38

ontogeny

Answer 38

development of individuals over their life span

Question 39

phylogeny

Answer 39

the evolutionary development of species through the ages

Question 40

tryon and Maze-Bright/Maze-Dull rats

Answer 40

.selectively bred over several generations for maze-bright rats.cross fostering control, would maze-bright rats raising a maze-dull child have an effect, NO.if you raise maze-dull in a stimulating environment, will perform almost as good as maze bright rats!.was selecting for a combination of many traits… that contribute to maze-brightness.wasn’t skill, turned out to be maze-bright rats were less fearful!