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Environmental Geology > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the four sub-cycles of the geologic cycle?

A
  1. Tectonic cycle
  2. Rock cycle
  3. Hydrologic cycle
  4. Biogeochemical cycle
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2
Q

What is the tectonic cycle?

A

Large scale geologic processes that deform the Earth’s crust producing landforms such as ocean basins, continents, and mountains

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3
Q

What are the lithosphere and crust?

A

The outer layers of the Earth, which as stronger and more rigid, that reach to about 100 km

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4
Q

What is the lithosphere broken into?

A

Lithospheric plates that move relative to one another, in a process collectively known as plate tectonics

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5
Q

What is the athenosphere?

A

A hot and plasticky flowing layer of relatively low strength rock about 250 km deep that is thought to be continuous

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6
Q

What is a subduction zone?

A

An area on a convergent plate boundary where the expanding plate is pushed beneath another plate

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7
Q

What are the inner layers of the Earth, from outside in?

A

Asthenosphere, mantle, outer core, inner core

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8
Q

What are divergent boundaries?

A

Where new lithosphere is being produced, which pushes the plates away from the ridge

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9
Q

What is are examples of a divergent boundary?

A

Mid-ocean ridges and continental rift valleys

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10
Q

What are convergent plate boundaries?

A

When plates are colliding

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11
Q

Which type of plates are typically subducted at convergent plate boundaries?

A

Oceanic plates that have higher density will be subducted under continental plates

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12
Q

What is a continental collision boundary, and what is an example of this?

A

When two colliding plates are composed of continental rocks, instead of one subducting, both plates instead crumple to form mountains. An example is the Himalayas

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13
Q

What are the three convergent plate boundary subtypes?

A

Continental-continental, continental-oceanic, oceanic-oceanic

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14
Q

What occur at C-C boundaries?

A

Major young mountain belts and shallow, frequent earthquakes

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15
Q

What occur at C-O boundaries?

A

Major volcanic mountain belts, subduction zones and deep oceanic trenches, and earthquakes

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16
Q

What occur at O-O boundaries?

A

Subduction zones where older, denser plate sinks below the younger, less dense ocean plate; deep oceanic trenches, volcanic island arcs, and wide earthquake zones

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17
Q

What is a transform boundary and provide an example?

A

Occurs when the offset segments of two plates slide past one another. San Andreas Fault

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18
Q

What is the likely mechanism that causes plate tectonics?

A

Earth’s interior convection

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19
Q

What is the rate of plate movement?

A

About a few centimeters per year, though the rates of movement changes over time

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20
Q

What is Wilson’s cycle?

A

A cycle that describes the continuous creation, movement, and destruction of the Earth’s crust

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21
Q

What are hot spots?

A

Places on Earth where volcanoes have magma source from deep mantle or possible core-mantle boundary

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22
Q

What are two examples of hotspots?

A

Hawaii and Yellowstone National Park

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23
Q

Why is knowledge of plate tectonics useful in environmental geology?

A
  1. Typically indicates where zones of resources are located
  2. Earthquake zones and volcanic activity
  3. Landscape and climate impacts
  4. Foundation for urban development and hazard mitigation
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24
Q

What is a rock?

A

An aggregate of one or more minerals

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25
Q

What is the rock cycle?

A

The largest geologic sub-cycle, by which rocks are formed from magma, eroded, deposited, lithified, and metamorphized.

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26
Q

What is the hydrologic cycle?

A

A solar driven process by which water is evaporated, transpired, precipitated, and involved in runoff or subsurface flow processes

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27
Q

What percentage of water is non-ocean surface water?

A

~0.3%

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28
Q

What percentage of water is oceanic?

A

97%

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29
Q

What is the biogeochemical cycle?

A

The transfer or cycling of an element through the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere

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30
Q

What are 5 reasons rocks and minerals are important?

A
  1. Fundamental building blocks of Earth
  2. Used in various modern economic developments
  3. Indicators of Earth’s history
  4. Mineral and rock knowledge necessary for resource management
  5. Important factors in the environment and for human health
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31
Q

What is a mineral?

A

A substance made of an element or chemical compound that has a definitive chemical composition, a crystalline structure, that is generally inorganic and solid and formed by natural geologic processes

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32
Q

What is a crystalline structure?

A

Orderly, regular repeating internal atomic arrangement

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33
Q

What are 5 diagnostic properties for minerals?

A

Color and streak, luster, cleavage, crystal form, and hardness

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34
Q

What are some special properties of minerals?

A

Smell, taste, feel, reaction to acid, and magnetism

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35
Q

How many minerals are there?

A

Over 4000

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36
Q

How many minerals roughly are common on or near Earth’s surface?

A

A few dozen

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37
Q

What are silicates?

A

Contain Si-O tetrahedron as a fundamental building unit

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38
Q

What is the most abundant mineral group in the Earth’s crust and at what percentage does it appear there?

A

Silicates and about 75% by weight

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39
Q

What is an example of a silicate?

A

Quartz

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40
Q

How does quartz fracture?

A

Conchoidally

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41
Q

Where is quartz most common?

A

River and moist beach sands, as it is resistance to most other forms of natural breakdown

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42
Q

What are feldspars? What is the alternate name for them?

A

Silicates composed of Si, O2, aluminum, and some K, Na, Ca; aluminosilicates

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43
Q

What color are feldspars generally?

A

White, pink, and gray

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44
Q

What industries are silicates important in?

A

Ceramics and glass industries

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45
Q

What do silicates generally weather chemically into?

A

Clays

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46
Q

What are ferromagnesian minerals?

A

Silicate minerals formed from Si, O2, Fe, and Mg

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47
Q

What colors are ferromagnesian minerals?

A

Generally dark colors

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47
Q

What are two examples of ferromagnesian minerals?

A

Biotite and pyroxene

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48
Q

What do ferromagnesian minerals generally weather into?

A

Rust, clays, and soluble salts

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49
Q

Are ferromagnesian minerals resistant to weathering?

A

No, very susceptible to weathering and erosion

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50
Q

What are carbonates?

A

Minerals consisting of the carbonate ion CO3 (2-)

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51
Q

What are two examples of carbonates?

A

Calcite and dolomite

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52
Q

What is calcite a major constituent of?

A

Limestone and marble

53
Q

What are oxides?

A

Minerals containing oxygen atoms bonded to an atom of another element

54
Q

What are two examples of oxides?

A

Hematite (FE2O3) and Bauxite (AL203)

55
Q

What are sulfides?

A

Minerals containing sulfur atoms bonded to one or more metallic elements

56
Q

What are two examples of a sulfide?

A

Pyrite (FeS2) and Galena (PbS)

57
Q

What environmental effect are sulfides commonly associated with?

A

Acid rain

58
Q

What are native elements?

A

Minerals made of a single element

59
Q

What is a rock?

A

An aggregated solid composed of minerals

60
Q

What are the three classifications of rocks?

A

Igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic

61
Q

How are igneous rocks formed?

A

Cooled and crystallized/solidified from magma

62
Q

What are intrusive rocks and provide an example?

A

Igneous rocks formed beneath the Earth’s surface that are coarse grained and where individual minerals can be seen due to slow cooling and crystallization; granite

63
Q

What are extrusive rocks and provide an example?

A

Igneous rocks formed at or near the Earth surface; basaltic rocks

64
Q

What is pyroclastic debris?

A

A form of extrusive igneous rocks form when magma is ejected from a volcano

65
Q

What are the three types of pyroclastic debris?

A
  1. Volcanic ash (4mm or less in size)
  2. Tuff
  3. Breccia or conglomerate
66
Q

What is tuff?

A

Compacted, cemented, or welded ash and is generally a very soft rock

67
Q

What are the three types of igneous rock regarding composition?

A
  1. Felsic/granitic
  2. Intermediate/andesitic
  3. Mafic/basaltic
68
Q

What is felsic igneous rock composed of and where is it typically found

A

Typically silica rich; continental crust

69
Q

Where is intermediate/andesitic igneous rock typically found?

A

Convergent boundaries around Pacific rim

70
Q

What is mafic/basaltic rock composed of and where is it typically found?

A

Silica poor; oceanic crust

71
Q

What are an intrusive and extrusive example of a felsic igneous rock?

A

Granite and rhyolite

72
Q

What are an intrusive and extrusive example of an intermediate igneous rock?

A

Diorite and andesite

73
Q

What are an intrusive and extrusive example of an mafic igneous rock?

A

Gabbro and basalt

74
Q

What are sedimentary rocks?

A

Rocks formed at surface environment conditions due to weathering

75
Q

What percentage of rock at the Earth’s surface is sedimentary rock?

A

75%

76
Q

What is the law of original horizontality?

A

Sediment layers are initially deposited in a horizontal position due to gravity

77
Q

What are the two types of sedimentary rocks?

A
  1. Detrital
  2. Chemically-deposited
78
Q

What are detrital formed sedimentary rocks?

A

Form when sediments are transported, deposited, and then lithified via natural cementation, compression, etc.

79
Q

What are chemically-deposited sedimentary rocks?

A

Formed via precipitation from chemical solutions and/or accumulated chemical or biological matter

80
Q

Which type of sedimentary rock contains fossils?

A

Detrital sedimentary rocks

81
Q

How are detrital sedimentary rocks classified?

A

Based on particle size

82
Q

What is the most abundant clastic rocks?

A

Shale, which has the finest texture

83
Q

What size constitutes gravel sediments and what do rock does gravel form?

A

Greater than 2 mm; conglomerate

84
Q

What is a conglomerate called if it has angular particles?

A

Breccia

85
Q

What size constitutes sand sediments and what do rock does sand form?

A

1/16 - 2mm; sandstones

86
Q

What are the three important types of sandstone?

A
  1. Quartzose sandstone
  2. Arkosic sandstone
  3. Graywacke
87
Q

What is quartzose sandstone?

A

Consists mainly of quartz

88
Q

What is arkosic sandstone?

A

Also know as arkose, and is over 20% feldspars

89
Q

What is graywacke?

A

Poorly sorted sandstone which contains rock fragments with a clay matrix

90
Q

What size constitutes silt sediments and what do rock does silt form?

A

1/256 - 1/16 mm; siltstones/mudstones

91
Q

What size constitutes clay sediments and what do rock does clay form?

A

Less than 1/256 mm; shale or claystone

92
Q

What is the biggest difference between shales, claystones, and siltstones, besides particle size?

A

Shales have laminations and fissility, clays have laminations, and mudstone lacks laminations; claystones are also exclusively made of clays

93
Q

What are the two types of shales?

A

Compacted vs cemented

94
Q

What are compacted shales?

A

Shales held together primarily by molecular attraction of fine clay particles

95
Q

What are issues with compacted shales?

A

Possibly can be very weak and have a high risk of sliding or slaking

96
Q

What is the benefit of cemented shales?

A

Very stable and strong, which makes it more suitable for engineering applications

97
Q

What percentage of sedimentary rock is composed of coarse grained rock?

A

25%

98
Q

Why are calcium carbonate conglomerates and sandstones possibly unstable?

A

Tend to dissolve in weak acids

99
Q

What is the strongest cementing material?

A

Silica cementing materials

100
Q

How are chemical sedimentary rocks classified?

A

Composition and texture

101
Q

What are three examples of chemical sedimentary rocks?

A

Halite (NaCl), Gypsum, Limestone (CACO3)

102
Q

What is the most abundant chemical sedimentary rock?

A

Limestone

103
Q

What are common textures for chemical sedimentary rocks?

A

Crystalline, microcrystalline, skeletal, oolitic, massive

104
Q

What does cross-bedding indicate?

A

Movement of ancient currents

105
Q

What is the law of superposition?

A

Within a sequence of layers of sedimentary rock, the oldest layer is at the base

106
Q

What are metamorphic rocks?

A

Rocks formed when pre-existing rocks under solid state are subject to conditions that result in changes to mineralogy and rock textures

107
Q

What conditions lead to rocks being metamorphosized?

A

Temperature, pressure, and chemically active fluids

108
Q

What is foliation?

A

Preferred mineral alignment of platy mineral particles

109
Q

What are the texture classifications for foliated metamorphic rocks?

A

Slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss

110
Q

Is slate suitable for foundation materials?

A

Yes

111
Q

Is schist suitable for foundation materials?

A

No

112
Q

Is gneiss suitable for engineering purposes?

A

No

113
Q

What does non-foliation mean with regards to metamorphic rocks?

A

Mineral particles are randomly arranged and interlocked

114
Q

How are non-foliated metamorphic rocks classified?

A

By composition

115
Q

What are two examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks?

A

Quartzite and marble

116
Q

What is quartzite?

A

Metamorphosed sandstone suitable for many engineering purposes

117
Q

What is marble?

A

Metamorphic rock composed of mineral calcite

118
Q

What is the law of crosscutting relationships?

A

Rocks are younger than any other rock that it cuts

119
Q

What are the three types of stress rocks are subjected to?

A

Compression, tensile, and shear

120
Q

What are the two types of deformation caused by stress?

A

Brittle and ductile

121
Q

What does brittle deformation result in?

A

Fractures, joints, and faults

122
Q

What can be caused by brittle deformation?

A

Landslides, earthquakes. and infrastructure failures

123
Q

What does ductile deformation result in?

A

Folds

124
Q

What is an anticline?

A

An ductile deformation that results in an uplifting of rock along an arc

125
Q

What is a syncline?

A

An ductile deformation that results in a dropping of rock along an arc

126
Q

What is an uncomformity?

A

A geologic contact, or boundary, that represents a break in the continuous rock record

127
Q

What is noncomformity?

A

A nonconformity is a geological feature that occurs when sedimentary rock is deposited on top of eroded igneous or metamorphic rock, creating a gap in the geologic record

128
Q

What is an angular unconformity?

A

younger sedimentary rocks are located upon an erosion surface, below which older sedimentary rocks are tilted or folded

129
Q

What is a disconformity?

A

the junction between two parallel series of stratified rocks, representing a considerable period of erosion of the much older underlying rocks before the more recent ones were deposited.

Environmental Geology (5 decks)

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