Chapter 2

Question 1

What are the two core beliefs of science?

Answer 1

1. The universe operates according to certain natural laws.
2. Such laws are discoverable and testable.

Question 2

What is the scientific method?

Answer 2

A systematic process for discovering and refining knowledge through observation, hypothesis formation, testing, and theory development.

Question 3

What is deductive reasoning?

Answer 3

Reasoning that starts with broad general principles and applies them to specific situations.

Question 4

What is inductive reasoning?

Answer 4

Reasoning that starts with specific observations and builds up to broader generalizations.

Question 5

What is the hypothetico-deductive method?

Answer 5

A scientific approach where researchers begin with a hypothesis, test it through controlled observations, and modify theories based on the results.

Question 6

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 6

A general statement about the relationship between variables that is objectively falsifiable.

Question 7

What distinguishes a theory from a hypothesis?

Answer 7

A hypothesis is a specific testable statement, while a theory is a well-substantiated explanation that integrates multiple hypotheses and observations.

Question 8

How do psychologists apply the scientific method to study human behavior?

Answer 8

They make observations, develop hypotheses, test those hypotheses through research, and build theories based on the results.

Question 9

What role does bias play in scientific research?

Answer 9

Bias can distort beliefs and affect predictions; researchers must minimize bias to achieve objective results.

Question 10

What is Positive Psychology?

Answer 10

A field focusing on the positive aspects of psychology, such as happiness and fulfillment, contrasting with the traditional focus on negative topics like depression and anxiety.

Question 11

What challenges do psychologists face in studying behavior?

Answer 11

Behavior is influenced by many simultaneous factors, and many psychological processes cannot be directly observed.

Question 12

How is behavior influenced according to psychological research?

Answer 12

By both temporary (e.g., context, emotions) and permanent (e.g., personality, genetics) factors.

Question 13

What are independent and dependent variables in psychology research?

Answer 13

The independent variable is the factor manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the outcome measured.

Question 14

Why is operationalizing variables important in psychological research?

Answer 14

It defines how the variables will be measured, ensuring clarity and consistency in research.

Question 15

What is an operational definition in research?

Answer 15

An operational definition specifies how variables will be measured or defined in a study.

Question 16

What is a major limitation of using self-reported measures for aggressive behavior? (surveys)

Answer 16

Participants might alter their responses based on social desirability or self-awareness, leading to biased results.

Question 17

What is random selection, and why is it important?

Answer 17

Random selection ensures that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being chosen, minimizing sampling bias.

Question 18

What is the difference between descriptive and experimental research methods?

Answer 18

Descriptive methods observe and describe relationships between variables without implying causation, while experimental methods manipulate variables to identify causal relationships.

Question 19

What are case studies, and what are their limitations?

Answer 19

Case studies focus on a single individual but can be biased and lack generalizability to broader populations.

Question 20

What is naturalistic observation?

Answer 20

It involves observing people in their natural environment without interference, but it can suffer from observer bias and the Hawthorne effect.

Question 21

What is participant bias?

Answer 21

It’s when participants respond in socially desirable ways rather than reflecting their true feelings or behaviors.

Question 22

What is the Hawthorne effect?

Answer 22

The phenomenon where individuals alter their behavior simply because they know they are being observed.

Question 23

What is an experiment in psychology?

Answer 23

A controlled observation where researchers manipulate an independent variable to observe changes in a dependent variable.

Question 24

What is the experimental group?

Answer 24

The group exposed to the independent variable.

Question 25

What is the control group?

Answer 25

The group that is not exposed to the independent variable.

Question 26

What is random assignment?

Answer 26

The process of assigning participants to experimental and control groups randomly to ensure they are comparable.

Question 27

What is a double-blind procedure?

Answer 27

A study design in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows which treatment the participant is receiving.

Question 28

What are interaction effects?

Answer 28

Situations where the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable changes depending on the level of another independent variable.

Question 29

What is a correlation?

Answer 29

A predictable relationship between two or more variables.

Question 30

What does the correlation coefficient measure?

Answer 30

It expresses the strength and nature of a relationship between two variables.

Question 31

What range can a correlation coefficient take?

Answer 31

From −1.00 to +1.00.

Question 32

What does a positive correlation indicate?

Answer 32

As scores on both variables increase together.

Question 33

What does a negative correlation indicate?

Answer 33

Higher scores on one variable are related to lower scores on another variable.

Question 34

What does a correlation coefficient of 0 signify?

Answer 34

No linear relationship between the two variables.

Question 35

What is the significance of the sign and number in a correlation coefficient?

Answer 35

The sign indicates the direction (positive or negative) and the number indicates the strength of the relationship.

Question 36

What is causality?

Answer 36

The relationship indicating that a change in one variable directly causes a change in another.

Question 37

What is a mean?

Answer 37

The arithmetic average of a set of scores.

Question 38

What does standard deviation indicate?

Answer 38

How much scores vary from one another within a group.

Question 39

What is replication in research?

Answer 39

Repeated testing of a hypothesis to ensure results are not due to chance.

Question 40

What two pieces of information does a correlation coefficient provide about the relationship between variables?

Answer 40

The strength and direction of the relationship.

Question 41

What do the mean and standard deviation indicate about scores of a group?

Answer 41

The mean indicates the average score, while the standard deviation indicates the variability or spread of the scores.

Question 42

What is the role of a research ethics board (REB)?

Answer 42

REBs evaluate research proposals to ensure the protection of participants’ rights and assess potential risks and benefits.

Question 43

What is informed consent?

Answer 43

Informed consent is the process of providing participants with sufficient information about a study to make an educated decision about their participation.

Question 44

How does debriefing relate to informed consent?

Answer 44

Debriefing is the process of providing participants with complete information about the study after their participation, especially if some details were withheld before.

Question 45

What ethical steps do psychologists take to protect human participants?

Answer 45

They obtain informed consent, protect participants from harm, maintain confidentiality, ensure voluntary participation, avoid deception, and provide debriefing.