Chapter 2 Flashcards
Psych as Science
Two Core Beliefs of Science
- The universe behaves according to certain natural laws
- These laws are discoverable and testable
Inductive Reasoning
Coming to a conclusion by starting with a specific situation and using it to come to broad/basic principles. This starts with empirical observations (objectively testable) that are then accumulated to form theories
Criticism of Deductive Reasoning
There is a risk of personal biases because ones personal beliefs/conventions will impact what they view as broad basic truths (Sir Francis Bacon)
Deductive Reasoning
Coming to a conclusion by starting with a broad/basic principle and going to a specific situation
Hypothetico-deductive Reasoning
The reasoning psych uses today in order to come to conclusions. One begins with a broad principle of some kind (a deductive process), then comes up with specific statements (hypothesis which can be disproved) and moves outward.
Steps of the Scientific Method
- Make Observsations
- Develop Hypothesis
- Test Hypothesis
- Build a Theory
Pseudopsychology
No use of scientific method when commenting on human behaviour and mental processes. Some examples include astrology, hypnosis, crystal therapy
Independent Variables
Condition/event which is thought to be a factor in altering another condition/event
Dependent Variables
Condition/event which is expected to change because of the manipulation of the independent variable
Operationalize
Operationalizing is the process that occurs in scientific research where one must define their variables in terms which are measurable and can be tested.
Sample
The group studied in an experiment that stands in place of a large demographic, too large to be studied as a whole (e.g. all women)
Random Selection
Identifying a sample in such a way that every member of the demographic of interest has a chance of being selected
Sampling Biases
This occurs when a researcher has selected a sample which is intentionally chosen to prove their hypothesis correct/is more likely to prove their hypothesis
Descriptive Research Methods
Studies which allow researchers to demonstrate the relationship between two variables
Name the Research Methods
- Case Studies (descr)
- Naturalistic Observation (descr)
- Surveys (descr)
- Experimental
Case Studies
A cases study is a study which only pertains to one person, that individual’s progress/changes/developments being the point of study
Case Studies Disadvantages
- It is difficult to draw general conclusions from case studies because they are only based on one person
- There is a risk of researcher bias in that if a researcher is expecting to see a certain effect they may emphasise those effects and disregard other results of the study (Example: A medication helps with stress but makes someone drousy and only the former is noted)
Naturalistic Observation
The researcher acts as an observer, observing people behaving as they normally do in a comfortable environment
Naturalistic Observation Disadvantages
- Again Researcher Bias
- Hawthorne Effect
Hawthorne Effect
People will alter their behaviour not because of an experimental stimuli/manipulation but rather because they are aware that they are being observed
Surveys
Researchers ask people questions
Surveys Disadvantages
- Participant bias: Often participants will not actually answer based on how they would act/what they think but rather based on how their responses will be perceived socially (what is socially acceptable over what is true)
- Participants may not understand questions the same way
- Participants may not be aware of their own behaviours
- Cannot indicate the direction of a relationship
Surveys Advantage
Surveys can use questions to pin down specific details which may not be as easy to reveal in naturalistic observations or case studies
Experiment
Controlled observation in which researchers manipulate one variable to observe its effects on another
Experimental Group vs Control Group
An experimental group is a group exposed to the independent variable: the control group is not exposed to it
Random Assignment
Distributing people between control and experimental groups such that all uncontrolled variables are equally distributed
Double-Blind Procedure
Double-blind experiments include not informing the groups or the researchers who has been exposed to the independent variable to remove all biases
Correlation
A correlation is a predictable relationship between two or more variables
Correlation Coefficient
A value calculated in experiments that determines the strength of a relationship and whether it is positive or negative. The value ranges between +1.00 and -1.00. Closer to 1.00 is stronger and closer to 0 is weaker. In psych, any correlation coefficient higher than 0.3 is implicative of a relationship between the variables in question.
Negative Correlation
A negative correlation indicates that as one variable increases, another decreases. For example, a computers battery will decrease as time increases
Positive Correlation
A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases another also increases. For example, a computers battery will increase as time increases if the computer is plugged in.
Perfect Correlation
A perfect correlation is a correlation of +/-1.00
Causality
The direction of a relationship between variables. For example, does drinking less caffeine lead to being more energized or do more energized people drink less caffeine?
Correlational Research
Another name for descriptive research methods because so much of descriptive research is based on correlation statistics between variables.
Experimental Analyses
Used when scientists need to understand cause and effect or the direction in which something happens
Two Categories of Experimental Analyses
- Descriptive Statistics
- Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Summarizing/describing the data which is gathered
Inferential Statistics
Scientists use these to infer/make conclusions about what they’ve studied
What two concepts are used to describe the differents between experimental and control groups?
- The Mean of whatever data is collected
- The standard deviation of each group
Mean
The average. Large disparities between two groups means indicates that the group exposed to the independent variable was affected by it.
Standard Deviation
Statistical index of how much participants scores vary from one another in a group
T-tests/Analyses of Variances (Significance Tests)
Tests used to study differences between the means and standard deviations of an experiments groups. Essentially analyzing if they’re different.
Significance
The word ‘significance’ in research stats is used to say that the data shows certain changes within a group are due to experimental manipulation
Probability Statistic
A stat calculated that states the percentage of the time the same result will be found in an experiment. In psych, less than 5% indicates statistical significance
Replication
Trying an experiment multiple times to ensure that the hypothesis reigns true under multiple circumstances
6 General Ethical Considerations
- Obtain informed consent
- Protect participants from harm/discomfort
- Protect confidentiality
- Make participation voluntary
- Do not use deception or incomplete disclosure
- Provide complete debriefing
Debriefing
At times, giving every detail of an experiment to a participant can lead them to respond inauthentically within the actual experiment. Debriefing is revealing afterward what has been withheld in order to prevent this.
