Chapter 2

Question 1

Two Core Beliefs of Science

Answer 1

1. The universe behaves according to certain natural laws
2. These laws are discoverable and testable

Question 2

Inductive Reasoning

Answer 2

Coming to a conclusion by starting with a specific situation and using it to come to broad/basic principles. This starts with empirical observations (objectively testable) that are then accumulated to form theories

Question 2

Criticism of Deductive Reasoning

Answer 2

There is a risk of personal biases because ones personal beliefs/conventions will impact what they view as broad basic truths (Sir Francis Bacon)

Question 3

Deductive Reasoning

Answer 3

Coming to a conclusion by starting with a broad/basic principle and going to a specific situation

Question 4

Hypothetico-deductive Reasoning

Answer 4

The reasoning psych uses today in order to come to conclusions. One begins with a broad principle of some kind (a deductive process), then comes up with specific statements (hypothesis which can be disproved) and moves outward.

Question 5

Steps of the Scientific Method

Answer 5

1. Make Observsations
2. Develop Hypothesis
3. Test Hypothesis
4. Build a Theory

Question 6

Pseudopsychology

Answer 6

No use of scientific method when commenting on human behaviour and mental processes. Some examples include astrology, hypnosis, crystal therapy

Question 7

Independent Variables

Answer 7

Condition/event which is thought to be a factor in altering another condition/event

Question 8

Dependent Variables

Answer 8

Condition/event which is expected to change because of the manipulation of the independent variable

Question 9

Operationalize

Answer 9

Operationalizing is the process that occurs in scientific research where one must define their variables in terms which are measurable and can be tested.

Question 10

Sample

Answer 10

The group studied in an experiment that stands in place of a large demographic, too large to be studied as a whole (e.g. all women)

Question 11

Random Selection

Answer 11

Identifying a sample in such a way that every member of the demographic of interest has a chance of being selected

Question 12

Sampling Biases

Answer 12

This occurs when a researcher has selected a sample which is intentionally chosen to prove their hypothesis correct/is more likely to prove their hypothesis

Question 13

Descriptive Research Methods

Answer 13

Studies which allow researchers to demonstrate the relationship between two variables

Question 14

Name the Research Methods

Answer 14

1. Case Studies (descr)
2. Naturalistic Observation (descr)
3. Surveys (descr)
4. Experimental

Question 15

Case Studies

Answer 15

A cases study is a study which only pertains to one person, that individual’s progress/changes/developments being the point of study

Question 16

Case Studies Disadvantages

Answer 16

1. It is difficult to draw general conclusions from case studies because they are only based on one person
2. There is a risk of researcher bias in that if a researcher is expecting to see a certain effect they may emphasise those effects and disregard other results of the study (Example: A medication helps with stress but makes someone drousy and only the former is noted)

Question 17

Naturalistic Observation

Answer 17

The researcher acts as an observer, observing people behaving as they normally do in a comfortable environment

Question 18

Naturalistic Observation Disadvantages

Answer 18

1. Again Researcher Bias
2. Hawthorne Effect

Question 19

Hawthorne Effect

Answer 19

People will alter their behaviour not because of an experimental stimuli/manipulation but rather because they are aware that they are being observed

Question 20

Surveys

Answer 20

Researchers ask people questions

Question 21

Surveys Disadvantages

Answer 21

1. Participant bias: Often participants will not actually answer based on how they would act/what they think but rather based on how their responses will be perceived socially (what is socially acceptable over what is true)
2. Participants may not understand questions the same way
3. Participants may not be aware of their own behaviours
4. Cannot indicate the direction of a relationship

Question 22

Surveys Advantage

Answer 22

Surveys can use questions to pin down specific details which may not be as easy to reveal in naturalistic observations or case studies

Question 23

Experiment

Answer 23

Controlled observation in which researchers manipulate one variable to observe its effects on another

Question 24

Experimental Group vs Control Group

Answer 24

An experimental group is a group exposed to the independent variable: the control group is not exposed to it

Question 25

Random Assignment

Answer 25

Distributing people between control and experimental groups such that all uncontrolled variables are equally distributed

Question 26

Double-Blind Procedure

Answer 26

Double-blind experiments include not informing the groups or the researchers who has been exposed to the independent variable to remove all biases

Question 27

Correlation

Answer 27

A correlation is a predictable relationship between two or more variables

Question 28

Correlation Coefficient

Answer 28

A value calculated in experiments that determines the strength of a relationship and whether it is positive or negative. The value ranges between +1.00 and -1.00. Closer to 1.00 is stronger and closer to 0 is weaker. In psych, any correlation coefficient higher than 0.3 is implicative of a relationship between the variables in question.

Question 29

Negative Correlation

Answer 29

A negative correlation indicates that as one variable increases, another decreases. For example, a computers battery will decrease as time increases

Question 30

Positive Correlation

Answer 30

A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases another also increases. For example, a computers battery will increase as time increases if the computer is plugged in.

Question 31

Perfect Correlation

Answer 31

A perfect correlation is a correlation of +/-1.00

Question 32

Causality

Answer 32

The direction of a relationship between variables. For example, does drinking less caffeine lead to being more energized or do more energized people drink less caffeine?

Question 33

Correlational Research

Answer 33

Another name for descriptive research methods because so much of descriptive research is based on correlation statistics between variables.

Question 34

Experimental Analyses

Answer 34

Used when scientists need to understand cause and effect or the direction in which something happens

Question 35

Two Categories of Experimental Analyses

Answer 35

1. Descriptive Statistics
2. Inferential Statistics

Question 36

Descriptive Statistics

Answer 36

Summarizing/describing the data which is gathered

Question 37

Inferential Statistics

Answer 37

Scientists use these to infer/make conclusions about what they’ve studied

Question 38

What two concepts are used to describe the differents between experimental and control groups?

Answer 38

1. The Mean of whatever data is collected
2. The standard deviation of each group

Question 39

Mean

Answer 39

The average. Large disparities between two groups means indicates that the group exposed to the independent variable was affected by it.

Question 40

Standard Deviation

Answer 40

Statistical index of how much participants scores vary from one another in a group

Question 41

T-tests/Analyses of Variances (Significance Tests)

Answer 41

Tests used to study differences between the means and standard deviations of an experiments groups. Essentially analyzing if they’re different.

Question 42

Significance

Answer 42

The word ‘significance’ in research stats is used to say that the data shows certain changes within a group are due to experimental manipulation

Question 43

Probability Statistic

Answer 43

A stat calculated that states the percentage of the time the same result will be found in an experiment. In psych, less than 5% indicates statistical significance

Question 44

Replication

Answer 44

Trying an experiment multiple times to ensure that the hypothesis reigns true under multiple circumstances

Question 45

6 General Ethical Considerations

Answer 45

1. Obtain informed consent
2. Protect participants from harm/discomfort
3. Protect confidentiality
4. Make participation voluntary
5. Do not use deception or incomplete disclosure
6. Provide complete debriefing

Question 46

Debriefing

Answer 46

At times, giving every detail of an experiment to a participant can lead them to respond inauthentically within the actual experiment. Debriefing is revealing afterward what has been withheld in order to prevent this.