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Applied Pathos Cohort 21 2024 > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

Applied Pathos

1
Q

Cellular components include:

A

Plasma (cell) membrane, cytoplasm, and it’s organelles

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2
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Everything inside of the cell, excluding membrane and nucleus. It is a colloid (mixture) made of Water, Proteins, Fats, Electrolytes, Glycogen, Organelles, and Pigments. Cytosol is the fluid inside.

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3
Q

plasma/cell membrane

A

Protects cells by creating BARRIER SEPARATING intracellular and extracellular components. Made up of phospholipids- phosphate head (likes water) and lipid tail (hates water).

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4
Q

Organelles - 5 Main Parts

A

Small structures w/in cytoplasm with diff features.
these include:
Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Body/apparatus, Lysosomes, Peroxisome, Mitochodrian.

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5
Q

Organelles 1/5 Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

Network of tubules, creating FATS and PROTEINS.
REGULATION of ions in cell.
2 TYPES
-Rough: contains ribosomes BOUND to membrane that create proteins. Creates lysosomal enzymes.

-Smooth: synthesis of lipids, lipoproteins, and steroid hormones. Regulation of INTRACELLULAR calcium.

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6
Q

Organelles 2/5 Golgi Apparatus

A

Membranous structure that PREPS substances from Endoplasmic reticulum for SECRETION out of CELL.

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7
Q

Organelles 3/5 Lysosomes

A

Small sac surrounded by membrane. Digests cellular debris hydrolytic enzymes. Needed in metabolism of SOME substances.

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8
Q

Organelles 4/5 Peroxisome

A

Smaller sac than lysosome. Enzymes NEUTRALIZE FREE RADICALS. Promotes survival of cell by neutralizing potential harmful substances.

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9
Q

Organelles 5/5 Mitochondrian

A

Site of AEROBIC cellular respiration. Main producer of ATP.

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10
Q

Nucleus

A

Enclosed in nuclear membrane. Has deoxyribonucleic acid. Each cell has 23 chromosomes. Genes are pieces of DNA arranged in spiral The Nucleolus houses ribonucleic acid.

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11
Q

Cytoskeleton (not organelle)

A

Structure-1. microtubules, 2. microfilaments
Function- 1 thin protein , 2. Thin has actin intermediate has in between and think is Myosin.

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12
Q

Cellular function

A

Transportation, Ingestion, secretion, respiration, communication, reproduction

SPECIALIZED function is determined by cell type

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13
Q

Passive Transport

A

-Substances can enter passively w/no energy.
2 types
-Diffusion movement form lower concentration to higher ex electrical charge. O2 and Co2 usually diffuse through.
the Rate they diffuse DEPENDS on particle SIZE and by MEMBRANE PORE.
- Osmosis allows water to passively move across semipermeable membrane.

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14
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A

Movement of substances needs assisted diffusion w/ help of TRANSPORT PROTEINS.
ex glucose is large substance that uses it.
-leak channels: needs no stimulation, open
-gated channels: open in close in response to stimuli 3 types
1. voltage gated- stimulated by change in membrane potential
2. ligand gated- by receptor-ligand binding to receptor
3. mechanically gated- by vibration stretching and pressure

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15
Q

Active Transport

A

NEEDS energy when moving particles across plasma membrane.
MOVES AGAINST Concentration Gradient. ATP!!
When movement of second substance depends on energy of primary substance = secondary Active Transport.

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16
Q

6 types of Cellular Function

A

Transportation, Ingestion, Secretion, Respiration, Communication, Reproduction

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17
Q

Ingestion ..

A

Process is called Endocytosis = a transport of large substances in the cell.
2 Types- Pinocytosis and PhagoCytosis

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18
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Brings in liquid from the extracellular environment

19
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Bacteria, large particles, damaged cellular components eaten by PHAOGOCYTES. When something is contained, now a PHAGOSOME later fusing with lysosomes.

20
Q

Secretion…

A

GOLGI apparatus with E.R. to packages vesicles when ships w/in or out of cell. If leaving, its secreting. Once leaves GOLGI,
- FUSES with plasma membrane
-Empties contents into Xtracelleular environment or
EXOCYTOSIS!!

21
Q

Respiration….

A

ATP produced is needed to power all cellular functions.
ANAEROBIC & AEROBIC.

22
Q

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

A

ATP production that happens w/o oxygen. Less energy made with this process.

23
Q

Aerobic Respiration

A

Oxidation and reduction between oxygen and nutrient products like glucose. More ATP

24
Q

Communication…..

A

For function and regular cell behavior needs, this must occur.
A receptor on the cell membrane or w/in can be bonded with a LIGAND (signaling molecule) and know is called SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION.

ALSO….PARACRINE SIGNALING IS LOCAL RAPID EFFECT.

ENDOCRINE SIGNALING LIGANDS ARE HORMONES AND THESE EFFECT THE WHOLE ORGANISM.

25
Q

REPRODUCTION……

A

OPERATED UNDER GENETIC CONTROL doing things such as
-growth of cells
-timing of the division of cells
-differentiation.

Cell size is determined by the amount of functional DNA. This is needed to since w/o DNA, the cell size can grow up to a certain point and never change.

26
Q

Proliferation

A

increase in cell number

27
Q

Differentiation

A

Describes changes in physical and functional properties of cells, and directs the cell to develop into specific cells. Although they all contain the same genetic info, repression and expression of certain genes may occur.

28
Q
  1. Cellular Adaption & Response to Stress
A

Include Atrophy, Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, Metaphasia, Dysplasia

29
Q

Atrophy

A

A DECREASE in individual cell size that can occur for several reasons.
- decrease in functional demand on a cell prompts decrease cell size
- Occurs when limb is IMMOBOLIZED in cast and active movement is impaired since reduces demand on muscle cells.
- Decreased oxygen supply (ISCHEMIA). This can happen after arterial blockage.

30
Q

Hypertrophy

A

INCREASE in cell size. Often occurs after increase in trophic (GROWTH) signals
-Signals can increase the development of organs after puberty.
- Increased demand from strength-building can occur as well.

30
Q

Hyperplasia

A

INCREASE in cell number.
like Hypertrophy, can be caused by increased hormone signaling and increased workload. Since they occur for the same reasons, they often are seen together a lot.

estrogen during menstrual cycle increases the number of cells in the uterus

High altitudes. Adaptations like increased red blood cell production to allow for more hemoglobin oxygen-carrying ability.

Compensates to create more oxygen for metabolic demands.

30
Q

Metaplasia

A

CHANGING of one cell type to ANOTHER.
AKA cells adapting to persistent stressors.

person with GERD esophagus changing from squamous epithel to glandular cell type in response to presence of gastric juices.

When said stressor is removed, cells can return to normal state. If persists, cells may develop into PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES.

31
Q

Dysplasia

A

ACTUAL CHANGE in cell size, shape, uniformity, arrangement, and structure. Cells response to persistent stressor. So AFTER metaplasia. OCCURS by abnormal differentiation of dividing cells and is considered a problem in regulating cell growth.

When reproduction does occur, mutations might be present (changes in genetic material that make chromosomes).

32
Q
  1. Cellular Injury & Death
A

Includes 2 Mechanisms of DEATH (Necrosis and Apoptosis) and CAUSES of these Mechanisms.

33
Q

Apoptosis

A

programmed cell death via genetic signal to be replaced.
-damaged genetic material or mutation
-old age of cell
-and attempt to decrease the actual number of cells.
Happens because enzyme reactions cell change the structure, the function of the organelles and other cell components

Common when embryo cells grow organs and systems. If not there can lead to manifestation known as syndactyly, fusion, or incomplete separation of digit soft tissue.

34
Q

Necrosis

A

The DISORDERLY process is associated with INFLAMMATION because of cell injury.

Injury causes damage to cellular structures like the mitochondria which can DEPLETE ATP. Plasma membrane barrier allows of contents to burst. WBCstry to digest the debris via phagocytosis. Leads to local INFLAMMATION of dead cells.

35
Q

Causes of Injury and Death

A

Infection and physical injury from Mechanical, Thermal, or Chemical sources can affect the system.

Mechanical - can be caused by the impact of a body part causing direct injury.

Thermal - temperature

Chemical - toxins endogenously or exogenously can cause death.

36
Q
  1. Clinical Models
A

This will show the pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment of 4 diseases.

36
Q

Cardiac Hypertrophy

A

Excessive workload and functional demand. The most common cause of death of people 30 yrs or less. 2ndary is increased blood pressure, imposing more workload of the heart.

Another form is Familial CH caused by the alteration of important genetic proteins needed for contractions.

P: Often a result of inherited non-sex linked genetic autosomal dominant trait.

C.M.: shortness of breath, chest pain, syncope (fainting)… a marker for sudden death.

D: ECG, EKG, exercise stress testing by response to exercise. Arrhythmia (irregular rhythm) of atria, bradycardia, systolic ejection, murmur.

T: Angiostein 2 receptor blockers (ARBs), calcium channel blockers, and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) for left ventricle.

36
Q

Cerebral Atrophy

A

Reduction in size of cerebrum of the brain. This leads to Brain Tissue Reduction Causes reduced stimulation or injury.

P: cause or consequence of neurologic disorder. Decreased stimulation from low physical or intellectual activity. Low B3 vitamins. TBI or encephalitis can lead to the loss of neurons, tissue, and other functions.

C.M.: Can be local or focal. Neurons in each area have special functions. Neuronal atrophy in frontal and temporal lobes leading to cognitive impairment like Alzheimer’s disease affects memory with atrophy of hippocampus.

D: Position emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), MRI.

T: Preventing or slowing the continued pathology. Supportive care w/ ADLs, physical, occupational, or speech therapies.

37
Q

Acromegaly

A

hyperplasia by excessive growth hormone stimulation.

P: hormone from pituitary and secondary increase in insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1). Xggaerated skeletal and organ growth occurring after epiphyseal or long bone ossification site closure.
Somatostatin has an inhibitory effect on pituitary. induced by growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH).

Giantism occurs cuz of the excessive production of growth hormones. affects infants and children since hormone is released cuz closure of epiphyseal growth plates.

C.M.: soft tissue swelling (rings stuck), enlarged hand and feet, prominence of jaw, brow, and nasal bone, enlargement of tongue and lips, increased space between teeth, pain and numbness in hands, deepening voice, snoring, skin changes, altered reproductive functioning. Arthritis and carpal tunnel cuz overgrowth of bone and tissue. Enlargement of organs. Sleep apnea, sexual dysfunction.

IGF-1 can suppress growth hormone can reverse it all.

D: checking IGF levels

T: Drug therapy, radiation therapy, surgical removal of adenoma. Pharmacologic management.

38
Q

Cervical Metaplasia and Dysplasia

A

Cervix dips into vagina. Made up of squamous and columnar tissue. . They merge and cause the Transformation zone. This zone can grow the most abnormal cells to develop.

C.M.: early onset of sex, multiple partners, exposure to HPV, smoking

D: Screening of tissue from exocervix and endocervival zone pap smear colposcopy using colposcope w/light.

T: ablation (freezing)

39
Q

Environmental Toxin Injury and Cardiovascular Disease

A

P: toxins in cig smoke (mainstream) first hand or active or (sidestream) passive or second hand. Free radicals like O2-. H2/o2, onoo- promote oxidative stress. Inflammation, cytokine release, vascular dysfunction altered gene activation leads to atherosclerosis.

CM: Aortic aneurysm, acute myeloid leukemia, cataract, cancer, pneumonia, periodontitis, chronic lung diseases, coronary diseases, SIDS, reproductive effects

D: history may show poor exercise tolerance or impaired ability of heart an blood to increase demands for activity. physical examination and laboratory studies.

T:smoking cessation

Applied Pathos Cohort 21 2024 (2 decks)

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