Chapter 2

Question 1

Neurons

Answer 1

Structures through which/where ELECTRICAL SIGNALS occur; a SPECIALIZED CELL transmitting nerve impulses

Question 2

Components of a neuron

Answer 2

CELL BODY: Contains mechanisms to keep the cell alive

DENDRITES: Branch out from the CELL BODY to RECEIVE electrical signals from other neurons

AXON/NERVE FIBER: Component filled with a fluid that CONDUCTS ELECTRICAL SIGNALS (some neurons have long axons, others short axons, and yet others no axons at all)

Question 3

Sensory Receptors

Answer 3

Neurons specialized to respond to environmental stimuli (receptors for touch, sound, smell, taste, etc.)

Question 4

Resting Potential

Answer 4

Voltage value of a neuron when the AXON is at REST, in which the difference in the INSIDE OF THE AXON is 70mV MORE NEGATIVE THAN THE OUTSIDE (or -70mV)

Question 5

Action Potential

Answer 5

Signal identified by the predictable rise and fall of the charge INSIDE THE AXON OF A NEURON (relative to the outside) and that lasts about 1 millisecond → neurons “FIRING”=NEURONS HAVING ACTION POTENTIALS

When the neuron’s receptor is stimulated, the signal is transmitted DOWN THE AXON, causing the CHARGE INSIDE THE FIBER to MOMENTARILY RISE TO +40mV COMPARED TO THE OUTSIDE, and then reverses BACK to -70mV as it returns to rest

Question 6

What are the basic properties of Action Potentials? (Just list)

Answer 6

• Passed on by PROPAGATED RESPONSE
• Constant size and intensity regardless
  of the size of the stimulus
• Are followed by a REFRACTORY PERIOD
• Can happen spontaneously
  (SPONTANEOUS ACTIVITY)

Question 7

Propagated Response

Answer 7

Once the action potential (response to stimulation) is triggered, it travels all the way down the axon WITHOUT DECREASING IN SIZE, and triggering propagated reactions, like dominoes that topple over each other

Propagated response it what enables neurons to transmit signals over long distances

Question 8

Refractory Period

Answer 8

The interval between the time ONE nerve impulse occurs and when the NEXT ONE can be generated

Refractory period of most neurons is 1 millisecond

Upper limit of a neuron’s firing rate is about 500-800 impulses per second

Question 9

Spontaneous Activity

Answer 9

Action potentials that occur in the ABSENCE OF STIMULI from the environment

Spontaneous activity establishes a baseline level of firing for the neuron, so the presence of actual stimulation usually causes an INCREASE IN ACTIVITY ABOVE THE SPONTANEOUS BASELINE LEVEL

Question 10

Transmission of Action Potentials Across Synapse (Steps)

Answer 10

When the action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, it is converted from an electrical signal into a chemical signal.
1. The action potential causes Ca2+ to enter the presynaptic terminal.
2. Ca2+ causes vesicles loaded with neurotransmitters to fuse with the presynaptic membrane.
3. Neurotransmitters in the vesicles are released into the synaptic cleft. There,
4. Neurotransmitters diffuse in the synapse and eventually bind to receptors that swim in the membrane of the postsynaptic cell
5. Binding with a neurotransmitter can cause a specific action of the receptor. Some receptors can form channels that allow electrically charged molecules (ions) to enter the postsynaptic terminal. Now the chemical signal has been converted back into an electrical signal.
6. Consequent influx of electrically charged molecules can cause a depolarisation of the postsynaptic neuron, which can then lead to the neuron firing another action potential. Some neurotransmitters can have the opposite outcome, they are inhibitory, not excitatory.

Question 11

Synapse

Answer 11

The small space/area BETWEEN NEURONS (neurons never touch)

Question 12

Neurotransmitters

Answer 12

Small molecules stored in SYNAPTIC VESICLES in the TERMINAL BUTTONS of a neuron (presynaptic terminal) responsible for transmitting neural signals

Question 13

Synaptic Vesicles

Answer 13

Small spheres or containers in the terminal button which FUSE with the membrane to release neurotransmitters into the synapse

Question 14

Receptor Sites

Answer 14

Small areas/proteins that are SENSITIVE to SPECIFIC NEUROTRANSMITTERS, and that when BOUND TO ITS MATCHING NEUROTRANSMITTER, TRIGGER A VOLTAGE CHANGE IN THE RECEIVING NEURON

Question 15

Excitatory Neurotransmitter

Answer 15

A neurotransmitter that INCREASES the chance of an action potential occurring because it DEPOLARIZES the neuron, making it MORE LIKELY to fire

Question 16

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

Answer 16

Neurotransmitter that decreases the chance of an action potential occurring because it HYPERPOLARIZES the neuron, making it LESS LIKELY to fire

Question 17

How do researchers record signals in neurons?

Answer 17

Electrical signals are recorded from the axons of neurons, using small electrodes to pick up the signals

Question 18

Sensory Coding

Answer 18

Information processing that occurs in the CNS, where sensory code refers to HOW neurons represent various characteristics of the environment (sight, taste, etc.)

Question 19

What is the term used to refer to the “problem of neural representation” and why is it a problem?

Answer 19

The “Problem of Sensory Coding”

Considered a problem because it is a highly complex process which took scientists a long time to understand

Question 20

Specificity Coding

Answer 20

The notion of a “SPECIALIZED NEURON” that responds only to one concept or stimulus (like a “salt neuron” only firing when you eat something salty)

Idea dates back to the 1960’s with HEROME LETTVIN

Question 21

Grandmother Cell

Answer 21

HIGHLY SPECIFIC NEURON hypothesized by Lettvin, which would respond ONLY TO YOUR GRANDMOTHER, from any angle, representation (photos, drawings) etc.

Part of Lettvin’s Specificity Coding hypothesis

Question 22

What is an alternative to Specificity Coding? (In terms of how to understand perceptual experience)

Answer 22

The idea that a number of neurons are involved in representing perceptual experience, as opposed to a hyperspecific neuron

Question 23

Sparse Coding

Answer 23

Process that occurs when stimulus is represented by a pattern of firing of ONLY A SMALL GROUP OF NEURONS, with the MAJORITY OF NEURONS remaining “silent”

There is evidence that the “code” for representing objects in the visual, auditory and olfactory system may involve PATTERN ACTIVITY across a relatively small number of neurons, as sparse coding suggest

Question 24

Population Coding

Answer 24

Proposes that our experiences are represented by a pattern of firing across a LARGE NUMBER OF NEURONS

An advantage of population coding is that a LARGE NUMBER OF STIMULI can be represented because large groups of neurons can create a huge number of DIFFERENT PATTERNS

Question 25

Phrenology

Answer 25

The study of the shape and size of the cranium as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.

First approach to studying how different functions map out in the different regions of the brain

Question 26

Modularity

Answer 26

Idea that specific brain areas are specialized to respond to specific types of stimuli or functions

EACH SPECIFIC “AREA” IN THE BRAIN (under this type of studying) WOULD BE CALLED A MODULE

Question 27

Broca’s Area (Modularity)

Answer 27

Region in the left frontal lobe which came to be associated with speech abilities after examinations done by physician Pierre Paul Broca

Question 28

Wernicke’s Area (Modularity)

Answer 28

Region in the temporal lobe which was also identified as being involved in understanding speech, as studied by Carl Wernicke

Question 29

What research tools were used in Modularity? What were their limitations and how did they work overall

Answer 29

fMRI’s/MRI’s

fMRI’s can be limited because they can only record VOXELS: small, cube-shaped areas of the brain which cannot record/detail individual neurons

In fMRI’s, “hotter” colors in brain imaging represents HIGHER ACTIVITY, while “cooler” colors represent LOWER ACTIVITY

Question 30

Superior Temporal Sulcus (STS)

Answer 30

Area in the brain dubbed the “VOICE AREA” because it activates significantly in response to vocal sounds (more than non-vocal sounds)

Question 31

Neuropsychology

Answer 31

Field of psychology which studies the relation between brain damage and its specific effects on behavior

Question 32

Distributed Representation

Answer 32

Idea that the brain represents information in patterns distributed ACROSS THE CORTEX (rather than in one single brain area)

This approach focuses on the activity in multiple brain areas and the connections between those areas

Illustrative example: If you touch a hot stove, the painful experience will involve multiple components of perception: a sensory component (the burning feeling), an emotional component (“it’s unpleasant”), and a reflexive motor component (pulling your hand away) → THESE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF PAIN ACTIVATE A NUMBER OF STRUCTURES DISTRIBUTED ACROSS THE BRAIN

Question 33

Structural Connectivity

Answer 33

Approach to studying the connections in the brain through the “ROAD MAP” OF FIBERS CONNECTIONS DIFFERENT AREAS IN THE BRAIN

Usually studied with an MRI

Question 34

Functional Connectivity

Answer 34

Approach to studying the connections in the brain THROUGH THE NEURAL ACTIVITY ASSOCIATED WITH A PARTICULAR FUNCTION THAT FLOWS THROUGH SOME STRUCTURAL NETWORK (cognitive and motor goals)

Usually studied with an fMRI

Question 35

Task-related fMRI (functional connectivity)

Answer 35

fMRI measured as a person is engaged in a specific task (listening to music, opening a lid, etc.) used to further understand neural connectivity

Question 36

Resting-state fMRI (functional connectivity)

Answer 36

fMRI measured when a person is not involved in any specific task (just mind-wandering) used to further understand functional commectivity

Question 37

How does studying functional connectivity help us predict behavior?

Answer 37

following the strength of the functional connectivity through brain imaging can predict the likeliness of certain perceptive behaviors, like hearing a stimulus

Question 38

Mind-Body Problem

Answer 38

The greater challenge in psychology as a whole which questions how physical processes like nerve impulses become transformed into the richness of perceptual and CONSCIOUS experience

Question 39

Action Potential STEPS

Answer 39

Connie I’mma need you help with this one