Chapter 16: Scientific Revolution

Question 1

Geocentric theory/Geocentric conception

Answer 1

The theory that the universe was made up of a series of concentric spheres with a fixed/motionless earth at its center.

• The earth was imperfect & constantly changing
• Earth made up of the material substances earth, fire, air, and water
• Heaven was set right outside all the planets (beyond the 10th sphere). Heaven was also known as the “Empyrean Heaven”.

Question 2

Nicolaus Copernicus

Answer 2

Created the heliocentric theory, that the sun is at the center of the universe, not the earth.

• still believed in the eight spheres that Aristotle believed in (which was not correct)
• Protestant reformers did not like this new idea, as well as Catholics

Question 3

Tycho Brahe

Answer 3

• Rejected the Ptolemaic system (earth centered universe) yet did not accept the Copernicus theory (sun centered universe)
• Johannes Kepler was his assistant, who became one of the greatest scientists of the era

Question 4

Johannes Kepler

Answer 4

• Astrologer
• Came up with 3 laws:
  
  1. The planet’s orbit aren’t circular but rather elliptical
  2. The speed of a planet is greater when closer to the sun and less when farther away
  3. Planets with larger orbits revolve at a slower average velocity than those with smaller orbits
• Abolished the idea of crystalline spheres (Aristotle)

Question 5

Galileo Galilei

Answer 5

• Discovered many astronomical things, such as

Question 6

Newton

Answer 6

• Wrote the “Principia” and the “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”
• His 3 Laws:
  
  1. Objects at rest/motion remain at rest/motion unless acted upon by an outside force
  2. Force equals mass times acceleration (f=m•a)
  3. For every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction
• He believed God was “everywhere present” and acted as the “force”
• Saw the world as a natural machine

Question 7

Paracelsus

Answer 7

• Wanted to replace the traditional system of medicine (4 humors) with a new chemical philosophy
• Humans are a small replica (microcosms) of the larger world (macrocosm)
• Often used poisons/toxins for healing purposes, which made others think of him poorly, even though it was effective
• Known as “Father of Modern Medicine”
• Was vain and had a temper, which led him to get fired a lot.

Question 8

Vesalius

Answer 8

• Father of Modern Anatomy
• Dissected real humans, which was looked down upon by people
• Still believed in many of Galen’s assertions, such as the 2 kinds of blood.

Question 9

William Harvey

Answer 9

• Proved Gallen’s principles wrong, such as the heart was the beginning of the point of the circulation of blood (not the liver), blood flows in both veins and arteries, and (most importantly) that blood makes a full circuit around the body.

Question 10

Margaret Cavendish

Answer 10

• A good example of women in France and England who worked in science, she represented them
• Wrote “Observations upon Experimental Philosophy” and “Grounds of Natural Philosophy”
• Debated different types of scientific approaches: rationalism, empiricism, etc.

Question 11

Margaret Merian

Answer 11

• Observed plants and animals in her father’s workshop.
• Wrote “Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam”, which she used her superb illustrations to show the reproductive and development cycles of insect life.

Question 12

Maria Winkelmann

Answer 12

• Married Gottfried Kirch (an astronomer) which led her to make many contributions in the astronomical field
• Discovered a “hitherto undiscovered comet”
• Was denied a position as assistant astronomer at the Berlin Academy, for she had no university degree and she was a woman.

Question 13

Cartesian Dualism

Answer 13

• An idea made known by René Descartes
• States that there are two kinds of foundation: mental and body, and there is an absolute duality between them.
• Mental cannot exist outside of the body, and the body cannot think.

Question 14

Francis Bacon

Answer 14

• Was 1 of the 2 creators of the Scientific Method (the other being René Descartes)
• Wanted science to contribute to the “mechanical arts” (industry, agriculture, trade)
• Empiricism
• Believed scientists should study the world, gather info, and test this info in experiments.

Question 15

René Descartes

Answer 15

• “Father of Modern Rationalism”
• Was 1 out of the 2 creators of the scientific method (Francis Bacon being the other)
• Ideas:
  
  1. “I think, therefore I am”
  2. Doubt everything until it can be proven with reason
  3. The world is a machine, and it follows certain laws