Chapter 16 & 17

Question 1

What is mobile-source pollution?

Answer 1

Avser luftföroreningar som släpps ut från fordon och andra rörliga källor som använder bränsle eller producerar utsläpp under drift.

Question 2

Why is it hard to control mobile-sources?

Answer 2

Mobile sources pose unique challenges for pollution control due to their mobility, the vast number of vehicles, and the critical role cars play in daily life.

• Regulating mobile sources is complicated because these vehicles are numerous, individually owned, and not professionally managed like stationary sources.
• Unlike stationary sources ( är fasta utsläppskällor som släpper ut föroreningar till luften från en specifik plats.), which can be relocated, mobile sources contribute to pollution based on where they are at any given time, especially during peak traffic periods.

must convince people to maintain their cars in a good way

Question 3

How can you regulate the mobile-sources?

Answer 3

• While the vehicle can be regulated at the point of production, controlling emissions during the vehicle’s entire lifecycle is challenging due to issues like maintenance neglect by owners.
• at the production stage is more manageable since there are fewer manufacturers, it takes longer to see reductions in overall emissions due to the durability of vehicles.
• strategies must also address emissions from existing vehicles, which often emit more pollutants than new models. The mix of vehicles on the road also influences total emissions, as different types of vehicles (e.g., diesel, hybrid) produce varying levels of pollutants.

Question 4

Main issues with mobile-sources

Answer 4

• The government has to decide who is responsible for the regulation.
• Costs associated with using roads, such as building new roads and maintaining them, not always paid directly by drivers. Roads are often funded through general taxes that everyone pays, rather than through fuel taxes that are linked to how much someone actually drives.
• Cost of driving does not fully reflect the true costs to society, such as road wear and environmental impact.
• Social costs not included in the price drivers pay, cheaper than it is to drive, imbalance driving becomes more attractive.

*

Question 5

Why do car-driving become a market disconnect?

Answer 5

Traditional insurance premiums are usually a fixed annual cost and don’t change based on how many miles a person drives.

• In other words, while the “private cost” (what the driver directly pays for insurance) remains the same regardless of how much they drive, the “social cost” (the risk of accidents and potential harm to others) rises as vehicle miles increase.
• This disconnect creates an inefficiency because the real cost of driving more is not fully reflected in what the driver pays, encouraging more driving than might be socially optimal.

Question 6

Issues with low transportation costs (as we currently have)

Answer 6

• Low transport costs contribute to urban sprawl (stadsspridning), making it challenging to establish efficient public transportation systems, as dispersed settlements hinder high-density travel corridors needed for viable transit options.
• As traffic volumes near roadway capacity, the efficiency of traffic flow diminishes, creating externalities that impact all road users.

*

Question 7

The Corporate Average Fuel Economy

Answer 7

• was introduced in 1975 to promote fuel-efficient vehicles and reduce dependence on foreign oil.
• By mandating higher efficiency, these standards reduce fuel consumption per mile but can lower the marginal cost of driving, potentially leading to increased driving.
• while both strategies might achieve similar fuel economy, fuel taxes could more effectively decrease oil consumption by discouraging miles driven.
• Supporters of fuel economy standards argue that high gasoline taxes are politically unfeasible in the U.S., making standards a better alternative.

Question 8

Fuel taxes

Answer 8

Increasing fuel taxes raises the marginal cost of driving, encouraging consumers to choose more fuel-efficient vehicles and reduce overall driving.

Question 9

Results of rising/decreasing fuel prices

Answer 9

• When fuel prices increase, people are more motivated to buy fuel-efficient vehicles because they want to save money on gas. As a result, the market share of fuel-efficient cars (the percentage of such cars sold compared to other types) rises significantly.
• When gas prices drop, it becomes cheaper to drive less fuel-efficient vehicles, such as trucks and SUVs, which often leads to an increase in their market share.
• If high fuel prices persist for a long time, people may get used to the idea of buying fuel-efficient cars, and their buying habits might change. As a result, when fuel prices eventually fall, the shift back to less fuel-efficient vehicles might be less pronounced than before.

Question 10

Gas Guzzler Tax

Answer 10

• The Gas Guzzler Tax was established under the 1978 Energy Tax Act to discourage the production and consumption of fuel-inefficient vehicles.
• The tax is imposed on manufacturers of vehicles that fail to meet specified fuel economy standards and is in addition to any CAFE fines.
• The tax is calculated using a formula that accounts for highway (55%) and city (45%) driving, incentivizing the production of more fuel-efficient vehicles.

Question 11

Tax advantages based on emissions

Answer 11

Countries like the Netherlands, Norway, Germany, and Sweden utilize differential tax rates to promote low-emission vehicles, providing tax advantages based on emissions, car size, and purchase year.

• The effectiveness of these measures is evident, with over 87% of new cars sold in Sweden and more than 90% in Germany qualifying for tax advantages related to emissions.

Question 12

Car-Sharing

Answer 12

• Reducing Vehicle Ownership
• Growth of the Industry
  Car-sharing has expanded globally, with significant uptake in Europe and the U.S. In Germany, membership in car-sharing clubs surged from 20,000 in 1997 to 460,000 by 2013.
• Environmental Impact

Question 13

Zero emission vehicle (ZEV)

Answer 13

Plug-in hybrids
Battery electric vehicles

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are classified as zero-emission.

Question 14

Sales Quotas

Answer 14

*Försäljningskvoter innebär att biltillverkare måste uppfylla allt strängare krav på andelen sålda fordon som är nollutsläppsfordon (ZEVs).

*För närvarande är kravet att 4,5 % av deras försäljning ska utgöras av ZEVs, och detta krav kommer att öka till 22 % år 2025.

• Det innebär att en allt större andel av de fordon som säljs måste vara fordon med nollutsläpp, som exempelvis elbilar eller vätgasdrivna bilar, i takt med att reglerna skärps för att minska miljöpåverkan.

Question 15

Credit System

Answer 15

Each automaker earns ZEV credits based on their electric vehicle sales and must maintain a certain level of credits relative to their overall sales.

Question 16

Other Pricing Mechanisms

Answer 16

• Congestion pricing: aims to address the external costs associated with traffic congestion by charging drivers based on when and where they use congested roads.
• Cordon (Area or Zonal) Pricing: Charges for entering or driving within a designated area.
• Facilities Pricing: Charges based on the use of specific facilities.
• Pricing Lanes: Different tolls for specific lanes on a road.
• High Occupancy Toll (HOT) Lanes: Lanes that allow solo drivers to pay a toll for access during peak times.

Question 17

Examples of Implementation

Answer 17

Toll Rings: Cities like Oslo and Milan have established toll rings for congested areas.

Electronic Toll Collection: Many U.S. states use electronic systems to streamline toll collection and reduce congestion at toll booths.

HOV Lanes: High Occupancy Vehicle lanes, which require multiple passengers, help reduce congestion by incentivizing carpooling.

Innovative Approaches: Cities like London, Stockholm, and Singapore have implemented successful congestion pricing strategies.

Question 18

Private Toll Roads

Answer 18

The new policies in places like Mexico and California allow for the development of private toll roads, which are roads funded, built, and maintained by private companies rather than the government.

Question 19

Parking Cash-Outs

Answer 19

Employers who provide free parking incentivize driving. Offering employees compensation for not using parking spaces can reduce this bias, encouraging alternative transportation methods.

Question 20

Pricing Public Transport

Answer 20

While public transit generally aims to reduce vehicle miles traveled, fare structures should reflect the actual costs and external benefits.

• In scenarios where public transport increases congestion, fares should incorporate congestion charges.
• kollektivtrafik bör vara billigare!

Question 21

Pay-as-You-Drive (PAYD) Insurance

Answer 21

PAYD insurance aims to internalize the environmental externalities of driving by changing how car insurance premiums are calculated.

Estimates suggest that PAYD insurance could have the same effect as raising the federal gasoline tax from $0.184 to $1.50 per gallon for a vehicle with 20 mpg.

Question 22

What is the result of that emitters often lack the proper incentives to reduce emissions?

Answer 22

• Emitters do not have sufficient motivation to reduce their emissions because they don’t bear the full costs of the pollution they produce.
• When firms pollute, they create external costs—negative impacts on the environment and society that are not included in the price of their products.
  –> excessive pollution, no financial penalty for the harm caused.
• Understanding environmental problem, challenging, complexity and uncertainty in scientific research. For instance, predicting specific level of greenhouse gas emissions will affect global temperatures involves uncertainly.

Question 23

Climate Engineering/Geoengineering

Answer 23

Refers to technological interventions designed to reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere or cool the planet. The goal is to counteract the effects of climate change through direct and large-scale actions.

• Examples include carbon capture and storage (removing CO2 from the air and storing it underground) and solar radiation management (reflecting a small portion of sunlight away from Earth to cool the planet).
• Despite its potential, geoengineering is highly uncertain because its effects could be unpredictable and difficult to control, potentially causing new environmental problems

Question 24

Adaptation

Answer 24

*Adaptation involves making adjustments to human or natural systems to minimize the harm caused by climate change.

• This approach focuses on coping with the impacts that are already happening or are likely to happen in the future.
• It includes actions such as relocating infrastructure that is vulnerable to sea-level rise, building flood defenses, or modifying agricultural practices to withstand changing weather patterns.
• Adaptation helps communities become more resilient to the effects of climate change but does not address the root cause.

Question 25

Mitigation

Answer 25

• Mitigation is aimed at reducing the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere, thereby slowing down or preventing further climate change.
• It primarily involves changes in energy consumption to reduce reliance on fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas), which are major sources of emissions. This can be achieved by improving energy efficiency, adopting renewable energy sources (such as solar, wind, and hydro), and implementing policies like carbon taxes or emissions trading.
• Mitigation addresses the underlying causes of climate change by lowering emissions and promoting the use of cleaner technologies.

Question 26

Game theory

Answer 26

Offers insights into how countries can achieve mutually beneficial agreements regarding emissions reductions and climate change strategies.

Question 27

Carbon Sequestration

Answer 27

• Forests and soils are essential in the fight against climate change because they can absorb and store carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere, a process known as carbon sequestration.
• Forests and soils play a crucial role in carbon sequestration, and with improved practices, their capacity to store carbon can increase

*Reduce atmospheric carbon levels.
This potential has led to discussions in climate change negotiations about giving credit in carbon markets or toward carbon taxes for activities that enhance carbon uptake.

Question 28

Arguments for Carbon Sequestration

Answer 28

• Proponents argue that carbon sequestration is cost-effective, making it easier to accept stricter climate goals. It could also provide economic incentives for sustainable practices, benefiting poorer nations.

Question 29

Arguments against carbon sequestration

Answer 29

• Opponents raise concerns about the nascent science (nybildad vetenskap) of carbon sequestration, the high costs of monitoring, and the temporary nature of sequestration efforts.
• They worry that practices aimed at increasing carbon uptake may lead to undesirable outcomes, such as replacing old-growth forests with fast-growing plantations.

Question 30

The free-rider problem

Answer 30

• The challenge of free-riding arises because climate change is a global issue, and nations benefit from emissions reductions without necessarily contributing to them.
• This leads to a situation where individual nations reduce emissions only up to the point where their private benefits equal their private costs, resulting in overall insufficient reduction.

Question 31

Game Theory Insights on International Cooperation

Answer 31

• Research suggests that stable international climate agreements are more likely when the benefits of cooperation outweigh those of non-cooperation.
• However, the incentives for free-riding often diminish cooperation, especially when potential gains from collaboration are significant.

Question 32

Timing of payoffs

Answer 32

Laboratory experiments show that the timing of payoffs affects cooperation; immediate rewards lead to higher success rates in achieving climate goals compared to delayed benefits. This indicates that the lag in climate action incentives makes effective cooperation challenging.

Question 33

Strategies of co-benefits

Answer 33

• Strategies that involve co-benefits—such as the health benefits of reducing other pollutants—can motivate nations to mitigate greenhouse gases without the free-rider effect.
• Additionally, linking climate agreements with economic agreements can enhance cooperation by providing mutual benefits.

Question 34

Transfers to Encourage Participation

Answer 34

• Economic transfers from nations that gain from agreements to those that stand to lose can incentivize participation.

*

Question 35

What was the The Paris Accord (2015) stating?

Answer 35

introduced a bottom-up approach, allowing countries to define their own Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), but initial assessments showed NDCs were insufficient to meet climate targets.

• The submitted NDCs indicated that they were not ambitious enough to meet the climate, specifically the goal of limiting global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, with efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C.
• In 2017, then-President Donald Trump announced the U.S. withdrawal from the Paris Accord, citing concerns about the economic impact and fairness of the agreement to American interests.
• The U.S. was the only country to withdraw from the global climate deal at the time. This weakened global efforts to maintain strong climate commitments.
• The withdrawal was significant because the U.S. is one of the world’s largest greenhouse gas emitters, and its participation is seen as crucial for the success.

Question 36

Why was The Montreal Protocol a success-story?

Answer 36

• The Montreal Protocol successfully addressed ozone-depleting substances through active participation from developing countries and the establishment of a Multilateral Fund to assist with compliance costs.
• Technological advances provided alternatives to harmful substances, facilitating quicker phase-outs than anticipated.

Question 37

What is Carbon pricing?

Answer 37

• It’s a strategy to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by assigning a cost to emitting carbon dioxide (CO2) and other GHGs.

*The goal is to encourage companies and individuals to reduce their carbon footprint by making it more expensive to pollute.

Question 38

There are two main approaches to carbon pricing, which ones?

Answer 38

• A carbon tax (emission charge) is a fixed fee imposed on the amount of CO2 emitted. The price per ton of carbon is set by the government, and emitters must pay this fee for every ton of carbon they release.
• British Columbia, a province in Canada, implemented a carbon tax that started at CAD 10 per ton of CO2 in 2008 and gradually increased to CAD 30 per ton.

Emissions Trading Schemes (ETS):

• In an ETS, also known as cap-and-trade, the government sets a limit (cap) on the total amount of GHGs that can be emitted by major installations, such as power plants and factories.

Question 39

How can incentives to companies be created in terms of Adaption?

Answer 39

• Funds available to parties in climate agreements create incentives for participation.
• The Green Climate Fund, established at COP in 2010, aims to provide substantial support for developing countries to reduce emissions and adapt to climate change impacts, especially for those most vulnerable.
• The importance of cost-effective policies is emphasized, as they can enhance participation by maximizing net benefits from agreements.

*

Question 40

Offsets

Answer 40

Important factor in emissions trading systems (ETS), such as cap-and-trade, where the goal is to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

• är som att betala för att någon annan ska minska utsläppen åt dig. Om ett företag inte kan minska sina egna utsläpp så mycket som krävs, kan de istället betala för projekt som till exempel planterar träd (som tar upp koldioxid) eller bygger renare energianläggningar någon annanstans.
• These offsets can be used by companies to meet their emissions reduction targets under the system, providing flexibility and allowing for cost-effective compliance.
• For offsets to be effective, there must be strict standards for quantifying and verifying the actual emissions reductions achieved. This ensures that the reductions are real, additional (not happening anyway), and permanent.

Question 41

Price Volatility in Emissions Trading Systems

Answer 41

• Emissions trading systems set a fixed supply cap on the number of allowances (permits) available, which limits the total emissions from regulated sources.

*The price of allowances can fluctuate significantly due to changes in demand. For instance, if the demand for allowances increases, prices may rise sharply; if demand falls, prices may drop significantly.

• This price volatility can create uncertainty for businesses and make it harder to plan long-term investments in emission-reduction technologies.

Question 42

How can emission trading raise ethical concerns?

Answer 42

• Critics argue that it commodifies pollution, undermining moral accountability and the notion of shared global responsibility.
• Allowing wealthier nations to offset emissions by purchasing credits from poorer countries raises concerns about moral obligations to reduce domestic emissions.
• Proponents argue that voluntary trading benefits both nations involved and has led to cleaner air at lower costs, similar to existing pollution regulations that accept a level of permissible emissions.

Question 43

The wait-and-see” approach

Answer 43

Refers to a strategy where action is postponed until more information is available, especially in the context of uncertain or complex problems like climate change. Instead of immediately implementing policies or investing in mitigation efforts, decision-makers choose to delay action while monitoring the situation. The idea is to gather more evidence, better understand potential risks, or wait for technological advancements that could make future interventions more cost-effective.

Question 44

Hedging Strategies for Emission Reduction

Answer 44

• Refer to taking precautionary steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, even when there is uncertainty about the full extent of climate change impacts. The idea is to “hedge” or protect against the risks associated with climate change by starting with modest reduction efforts.
• Modest Reduction Strategy: The study by Yohe et al. suggests that implementing a modest emission reduction strategy is more beneficial than delaying action. By starting small, the world can begin to make the necessary changes to transition to a low-carbon economy. This approach helps build momentum and can be adjusted as more information becomes available about the severity of climate change.

Question 45

Optimal Strategy for Adaptation and Mitigation

Answer 45

• An effective approach to tackling climate change involves using both adaptation and mitigation strategies together.
• Both strategies have their own costs that increase as you try to do more. If you focus too much on one and neglect the other, you might end up spending more overall. For example, if we only adapt to climate impacts without reducing emissions, we might face higher costs in the long run.

Question 46

Importance of timing in Mitigation

Answer 46

Mitigation needs to happen early on to stop the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The sooner we act to cut emissions, the better we can prevent severe climate impacts.

• Some adaptation measures can be implemented later, especially when we have a better understanding of how climate change is affecting us. For instance, we might not need to build new infrastructure until we have clear evidence of future flooding risks.

Question 47

How does water pollution control differ from air pollution control?

Answer 47

• Recreational Importance: Recreation, such as swimming and fishing, is a significant factor in water pollution control policies, unlike air pollution.
• Economies of Scale in Treatment: Centralized treatment plants can be used for water pollution due to large economies of scale, while air pollution typically requires on-site controls.

*Challenges in Tracing Sources: Water pollution often comes from diffuse sources (like agricultural runoff), making it harder to control compared to air pollution.

Question 48

Types of Water and Sources of Pollution

Answer 48

*Surface Water: Includes lakes, rivers, and oceans, with a history of focus on cleanup and prevention.

*Groundwater: Can be contaminated by chemicals that leach through soil and rock, with little natural cleansing.

• Oceans: Recently gaining attention, with primary pollution from oil spills, dumping, and plastics.

Question 49

Point Sources

Answer 49

Discharge pollutants at specific locations, such as pipes, and are easier to regulate.

Question 50

Nonpoint Sources

Answer 50

Diffuse pollution from areas like agricultural land, more challenging to control, now responsible for over half of water pollution in the U.S.

Question 51

Ocean Pollution

Answer 51

*Primary sources include oil spills, ocean dumping, and trash, with oil spill frequency decreasing since 1970 but still posing risks, especially with offshore drilling.

*Ocean pollution has long been underestimated due to the mistaken belief that the vastness of the oceans can absorb large quantities of waste without harm.

*Dumped materials have included sewage, chemicals, trace metals, and radioactive substances.

*Recently, plastic pollution has emerged as a major issue, with vast amounts of plastic waste entering the oceans, harming marine life and killing thousands of birds and mammals annually.

Question 52

What can Water pollutants be categorized as?

Answer 52

Fund Pollutants: These pollutants can be assimilated by the environment to some extent. Examples include organic waste that degrades in water, using up oxygen, and causing harm to aquatic life. Monitoring for these pollutants typically involves tracking dissolved oxygen (DO) levels and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).

Thermal Pollution: Heat released into water (e.g., from industrial cooling processes) can reduce DO levels and disrupt ecosystems.

Nutrients: Excess nitrogen and phosphorus can cause eutrophication, leading to harmful algae blooms.

Persistent Pollutants: Inorganic synthetic chemicals that do not easily break down, such as certain pesticides. These pollutants accumulate in the food chain, with higher concentrations found in larger animals

Question 53

Why is it hard to monitor persistent pollutants?

Answer 53

• Including stock pollutants, is challenging because they often accumulate in the food chain and sediments, making them hard to detect in water samples.

*To address this, water pollution policies vary globally, with the U.S. approach focused more on regulatory measures and Europe favoring economic incentives.

Question 54

How was persistent pollutants monitored in the US?

Answer 54

• 1899 Refuse Act: Focused on preventing discharges that interfered with river navigation. Enforcement for pollutants other than dredging material was minimal until 1970.
• Water Pollution Control Act of 1948: Marked the first federal involvement, emphasizing state responsibility while enabling federal research and support.
• 1956 Amendments (tillägg) : Introduced federal financial support for sewage treatment plants, covering up to 55% of costs. Regulations were expanded to include interstate water pollution.

Question 55

Subsequent water pollution legislation

Answer 55

1965 Water Quality Act: Required states to establish ambient water quality standards, but the resulting plans were vague and lacked specific effluent standards.

1972 Clean Water Act (CWA): Set ambitious goals to eliminate pollutant discharges by 1985 and protect water quality for wildlife and recreation by 1983. It introduced permits for all dischargers based on uniform technology-based effluent standards.

1977 CWA Amendments: Extended deadlines, distinguished between conventional and toxic pollutants, and introduced stricter standards for toxics. It also added pretreatment standards for wastes entering public treatment systems.

Question 56

How is point sources regulated?

Answer 56

These sources are regulated through technology-based standards, which require facilities to use specific pollution control technologies. The federal government provides significant financial support for building and maintaining treatment facilities to help manage these discharges.

Question 57

How is non-point sources regulated?

Answer 57

Nonpoint Sources, on the other hand, are diffuse sources of pollution, such as runoff from agriculture, urban areas, or forestry, where pollutants enter water bodies indirectly. These are considered a state responsibility, meaning individual states are primarily in charge of managing them. The federal government has limited authority over nonpoint sources, although Congress has allowed grants for states to plan management strategies. However, there are no federal mandates requiring specific pollution controls for these types of sources.

Question 58

Conservation Reserve Program

Answer 58

a program for Addressing nonpoint sources which subsidizes farmers to reduce erosion and pollution

Question 59

The Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) program

Answer 59

Aims to control pollutants by calculating the maximum allowable amount for water bodies to meet quality standards.

Question 60

Legislation to ensure safe drinking water

Answer 60

• The Safe Drinking Water Act sets more stringent standards than the Clean Water Act to ensure safe drinking water, addressing contaminants like lead and copper.
• The Clean Water Rule expanded protections to smaller waterways and wetlands in 2017, but debates continue over costs and benefits.

Question 61

Watershed-based trading programs

Answer 61

• Watershed-baserade program är marknadsbaserade metoder för att förbättra vattenkvaliteten inom ett specifikt område.
• Dessa program tillåter olika föroreningskällor, såsom fabriker, jordbruk eller reningsverk, att handla med krediter för att minska föroreningar och uppfylla lagstadgade krav på vattenkvalitet.
• Målet är att minska föroreningar på ett kostnadseffektivt sätt genom att tillåta källor med lägre kostnader för att minska föroreningar att sälja krediter till dem med högre kostnader.
• Currently, there are 57 trading programs worldwide.

Question 62

The Irish Plastic Bag Levy

Answer 62

• Ireland’s Plastic Bag Environmental Levy (avgift/skatt), introduced in 2002, successfully reduced plastic bag usage by 95% in one year.
• The levy charged consumers, generating around €10 million for environmental initiatives, and has encouraged the use of reusable bags.
• The success of this levy influenced other countries, like China, to implement similar measures.

Question 63

China’s Pollution Control Approach

Answer 63

• China utilizes a graduated pollution levy, increasing fines based on the level of noncompliance, coupled with a self-reporting system.

*This method has shown to be a significant deterrent, though regional enforcement inconsistencies hinder universal compliance.

Question 64

Cost-Benefit Analysis of Water Quality Rules

Answer 64

Griffiths and Wheeler (2005) assessed the costs and benefits of significant water quality regulations, finding that two out of five surface water rules do not pass a benefit-cost analysis, while the remaining three show benefits that bound the costs.

They emphasize that benefit-cost calculations inform decision-making but do not solely dictate policy adoption.