Chapter 15 - The marriage of science and empire Flashcards
Summary
The marriage of science and empire
The convergence of science and imperial conquest shaped the world as we know it. The scientific advancements complemented empire building, and vice versa. Both provided tools, ideologies, and resources that facilitated each other’s progress.
The expedition of Captain Cook
Captain Cook’s voyage to Tahiti in 1769, funded by the Royal Society of Knowledge and supported by the Royal Navy, was a significant example of this symbiotic relationship. Not only did this expedition contribute to scientific, medical, and geographic knowledge, it also laid the groundwork for the British Empire’s expansion into Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania. The expedition’s scientific success, particularly in the treatment of scurvy, further enhanced naval dominance.
Imperialism, modern science, and the mentality of conquest
The expansionist mindset was unique to the Europeans, differing from older empires that had sought to extend their known way of life rather than seek new knowledge. European empires focused on acquiring territories and knowledge, fueled by their belief in the power and potential of ignorance. Their explorations often carried scientists onboard, contributing significantly to scientific progress, as seen in Charles Darwin’s journey during the charting of the Falkland Islands.
Invasion from outer space
The exploration and subsequent conquest of the New World by Spain involved exploiting local rivalries and leveraging unfamiliarity among different regions. The Asian powers failed to adopt similar exploration and conquest strategies, leading to their eventual downfall against technologically advanced invaders.
The empire and science combo
The alliance between empires and science became more prominent as science began to provide tools, ideological justification, and territorial knowledge for empire building. As the British Empire explored India, for example, they utilized scientists to map and decipher the country’s historical and linguistic contexts. The exploration and conquest also had downsides, such as destruction and exploitation of native populations, and the controversial use of science to propagate racial and cultural superiority.
Question: How did the relationship between science and empire influence global development?
Answer: The relationship between science and empire played a significant role in global development. Scientific advancements, like the development of the compass and maps, facilitated imperial conquests and explorations during the Age of Discovery.
Question: What were some key outcomes of Captain Cook’s voyage to Tahiti in 1769?
Answer: Captain Cook’s voyage led to critical scientific, medical, and geographic discoveries. For instance, he found a treatment for scurvy, which revolutionized naval expeditions. The journey also led to accurate charts of New Zealand and the east coast of Australia, which facilitated their later colonization by the British.
Question: How did the mindset of European empires differ from previous empires?
Answer: Unlike older empires that primarily sought to extend their way of life, European empires focused on both territorial expansion and knowledge acquisition. This mindset helped them learn from and exploit the resources and knowledge of the territories they conquered.
Question: How did Spain conquer the New World and why did Asian powers fail to adopt similar strategies?
Answer: Spain exploited local rivalries and unfamiliarity among regions in the New World to establish dominance. For instance, they conquered the Aztec Empire partly by forming alliances with other indigenous groups. Asian powers, on the other hand, failed to adopt such strategies, contributing to their inability to resist European incursions.
Question: How did science aid British colonization in India and what were the consequences?
Answer: The British used scientific knowledge to map India and decipher its languages. Projects like the Great Trigonometrical Survey mapped the Indian subcontinent accurately, and linguists like William Jones identified connections between Indian and European languages. However, this knowledge often led to exploitation of native populations, with devastating consequences such as the Bengal famine.
Question: How did Europeans use science to justify their imperial conquests?
Answer: Europeans used flawed concepts like “scientific racism” to argue for their racial superiority and justify colonization. These pseudoscientific theories have been widely discredited in modern science.
Question: What role did treating scurvy play in naval expeditions during the Age of Discovery?
Answer: Treating scurvy was crucial for naval expeditions. Captain Cook’s use of citrus fruits to prevent scurvy allowed his crew to stay at sea for extended periods, aiding exploration and subsequent colonization efforts.
Question: What was the unique mentality of European powers during the Age of Discovery?
Answer: European powers during the Age of Discovery were driven by a unique mentality of exploration and conquest. When Columbus discovered America, he sought to claim the lands for Spain and convert the indigenous people to Christianity, showcasing the European ambition to conquer and control new territories.
Question: How was science misused to provide ideological justifications for empires?
Answer: Science was often misused or misinterpreted to provide ideological justifications for empires. For example, phrenology, a pseudoscience, was used in the 19th century to argue for racial hierarchies and justify European imperialism, despite being scientifically baseless.
Question: How has the understanding of biological differences among humans changed over time?
Answer: Modern science has revealed that biological differences among humans are minor, effectively discrediting the theories of racial superiority that were used to justify colonialism and imperialism in the past.
Question: What were some of the brutal tactics used by European powers during their colonization of the Americas?
Answer: The European colonization of the Americas was marked by brutal methods including forced labor, enslavement, forced religious conversion, and the intentional or unintentional spread of diseases to which indigenous populations had no immunity. These tactics led to the decimation of native populations in regions like the Caribbean, Central America, and North America.
Question: How did the colonization of the Americas impact indigenous populations?
Answer: The colonization of the Americas had devastating impacts on indigenous populations. European diseases like smallpox decimated native populations, and the forced labor in silver mines and plantations led to widespread death and suffering. The imposition of European culture and religion also led to the loss of indigenous cultural practices and identities.
Question: How did British policies affect India, particularly Bengal, during colonial rule?
Answer: British policies in India had devastating consequences, especially in Bengal. The introduction of cash crops like indigo and opium resulted in widespread displacement of local farmers and created economic imbalance. The most catastrophic impact was the Bengal famine of 1943, caused largely by British policies, which led to the deaths of millions.
Question: What was the “Aryan theory” and how was it used to justify European imperialism?
Answer: The Aryan theory suggested that a “superior” race known as Aryans, characterized by traits like blond hair and blue eyes, originated from Europe and were the ancestors of significant civilizations, including those in the Middle East and India. This theory, though discredited by modern science, was used to provide a racial justification for European imperialism, asserting that European control over other societies was a return of power to its “rightful” Aryan inheritors.
