Chapter 15: Population, Urbanization, and Environment

Question 1

What was Ferdinand Tonnies’ view of how urban life differed from rural life?

Answer 1

Came up with two concepts:

• Gemeinschaft: a type of social organization in which people are closely tied by kinship and tradition
• Gesellschaft: a type of social organization in which people come together only on the basis of individual self-interest

Question 2

What was Emile Durkheim’s view of how urban life differed from rural life?

Answer 2

• Mechanical solidarity: social bonds based on common sentiments and shared moral values, similar to Gemeinschaft
• Organic solidarity: social bonds based on specialization and interdependence, similar to Gesellschaft

–> industrialization weakened tradition

Question 3

What is anomie?

Answer 3

Coined by Emile Durkheim

Sense of disconnection – feeling of not belonging to a group

Biggest challenges facing society i.e. city strangers

Immigrant experience –> extreme anomie

Question 4

How did Emile Durkheim’s views differ from Tonnies’?

Answer 4

Both thought industrialization weakened tradition

Durkheim thought that industrialization shifted bonds based on likeness to bonds based on difference

While something was lost, much is also gained: individual choice, moral tolerance, personal privacy

Question 5

What were Georg Simmel’s views on how urban life differed from rural life?

Answer 5

Urban people develop a blase attitude (tuning out what goes on around them), due to overstimulation

Detachment is a survival strategy for people to focus their time and energy on people and things that matter to them

Question 6

What were the views of Robert Park on how industrialization affects way of life?

Answer 6

Robert Park (leader of first North American sociology program at UChicago): walked the city streets, finding an organized mosaic of different ethnic communities, commercial centres, industrial centres that develop and change in relation to each other

Question 7

What were Louis Wirth’s views of how industrialization affects our way of life?

Answer 7

Louis Wirth (Chicago School of urban sociology): blended ideas of Tonnies, Durkheim, Simmel, Park;

• city has large and diverse population
• people in cities come in contact with many more people than those in rural areas
• we know people as what they do rather than who they are
• self-interest is main reason behind interactions, impersonal
• but city dwellers more tolerant and don’t follow one single code of moral conduct, rural dwellers enforce narrow traditions

Question 8

What is urban ecology?

Answer 8

the study of the link between the physical and social dimensions of cities

Question 9

Theories of why cities are where they are located?

Answer 9

first cities = fertile areas, easy to raise crops
pre-industrial = on mountains or surrounded by water (for defence)
industrial = major NA cities near rivers or natural harbours (for trade)

Question 10

Theories of why cities are where they are located?

Answer 10

first cities = fertile areas, easy to raise crops
pre-industrial = on mountains or surrounded by water (for defence)
industrial = major NA cities near rivers or natural harbours (for trade)

Question 11

Ernest W. Burgess’ observation about physical design of cities?

Answer 11

Concentric zones: 
city centre (business districts) surrounded by ring of factories, surrounded by residential rings (the further away from noise and pollution, the more expensive)

Question 12

Homer Hoyt’s observations about physical design of cities?

Answer 12

wedge-shaped sectors (develop as wedge outward instead of ring)

• one fashionable area may develop next to another
• industrial district may extend from city’s centre along train/trolley line

Question 13

Chauncy Harris and Edward Ulman’s observations about physical design of cities?

Answer 13

multi-centred model:

• as cities grow, residential areas/industrial parks/shopping districts push away from one another
• people don’t want to live next to industrial areas

Question 14

3 factors of social area analysis (what people in particular neighbourhoods have in common), according to Shevky & Bell, Johnston?

Answer 14

1. family patterns: those with children -> areas with single-family homes/large apartments/good schools
2. social class: rich –> high-prestige areas, in central city near cultural attractions
3. race and ethnicity: people of same race/ethnicity cluster together

Question 15

Brian Berry and Philip Rees’ observations?

Answer 15

• distinct family types settle in concentric zones
  1. families: those w/ many children live in outer areas of city / young singles more in the centre
  2. social class: rich occupy one “side of the tracks”, poor on the other –> sector-shaped districts (Hoyt)
  3. race and ethnicity: distinct areas found throughout city

Question 16

What caused the shift from ecological approach to social-conflict approach of understanding city life?

Answer 16

Late 1960s, many NA cities had riots/social movements

Question 17

What is the urban political economy model?

Answer 17

• applies Karl Marx’s analysis of conflict in the workplace to conflict in city
• ecological approach not a natural organism, does not develop according to internal logic
• city is defined large institutional structures, especially economy
• gentrification = economic class conflict
• capitalism shapes urban life: city becomes real estate traded for profit, concentrates wealth/power in hands of a few

Question 18

How has % of people living in cities changed throughout history?

Answer 18

1950: 25% of people in poor countries
2008: 50% of world population
2017: 55% of world population, urban majorities in poor countries

Question 19

Describe the third urban revolution underway in poor countries

Answer 19

• most increase in population in cities (66% of world population)
• many more cities exceeding populations of 10 million, majority now are not from high-income countries
• happening since many poor nations in Stage 2 of demographic transition (falling death rates, migration to urban areas for better jobs and access to resources)
• many cities in poor nations unable to meet basic needs of much of the population, many live in makeshift home settlements

Question 20

What is ecology?

Answer 20

the study of the interaction of living organisms and the natural environment

Question 21

What is the natural environment?

Answer 21

Earth’s surface and atmosphere, including living organisms, air, water, soil, and other resources necessary to sustain life

Question 22

What is an ecosystem?

Answer 22

a system composed of the interaction of all living organisms and their natural environment

Question 23

Equation for environmental impact (I)?

Answer 23

I = PAT

where:
P = society’s population
A = level of affluence
T = level of technology

Question 24

How has humans’ ability to control the environment change over the course of history?

Answer 24

• Hunter-gatherers: hardly at all; the environment affects their life greatly (follow migration of game, watch rhythm of seasons, suffer from natural catastrophes)
• Intermediate technological development: some impact; horticulture, pastoralism, agriculture still limited; reliance on muscle power
• Industrial Revolution: started to use machinery run on coal first then oil; consume much more natural resources, release pollution; control nature by tunneling mountains, damming rivers, irrigating deserts, drilling for oil

Question 25

Issue with higher living standards?

Answer 25

increase issue of solid waste (people throw away most of what they produce) and pollution (smoke and toxic substances)

Question 26

What is an environmental deficit?

Answer 26

profound long-term harm to the natural environment caused by humanity’s focus on short-term material affluence

Question 27

Why is the concept of environmental deficit important?

Answer 27

1. environmental concerns = sociological
2. environmental damage = unintended, most people don’t realize the consequences
3. environmental deficit is reversible

Question 28

What are the arguments of the logic of growth?

Answer 28

• economic growth is good –> more cars, bigger homes, more spending = cultural definition of living well
• technology continues and will continue to improve our lives
• scientists and technology experts will find solutions to depletion of resources (e.g. hybird/electric cars, hydrogen, solar, nuclear engines)

Question 29

Criticisms of logic of growth?

Answer 29

• will strain the environment
• assumes natural resources (oil, clean air, fresh water, topsoil) will always be plentiful
• we will exhaust finite resources by pursuing growth at any cost (Malthus) to support increasing numbers of people

Question 30

What are the arguments of the limits-to-growth thesis?

Answer 30

• humanity must put in place policies to control population growth, production, and use of resources to prevent environmental collapse
• Donella Meadows et al. (1972): we are quickly consuming Earth’s finite resources (oil, natural gas, etc.) will continue to drop, depending on policies of rich nations and industrialization of nations like India and China; in next 100 years, resources will run out, industrial output will be crippled, and food production will decline
• must make fundamental changes in how we live to place less strain on the natural environment –> or widespread hunger and conflict will force change on us

Question 31

What is John Foster’s, author of Ecology Against Capitalism, famous quote?

Answer 31

“infinite expansion within a finite environment” - a contradiction in terms

Question 32

What are the main issues with solid waste in Canada and NA?

Answer 32

• Canada has become a disposable society, consuming and throwing away a lot of products
• average person in NA consumes hundreds of time more energy, plastics, lumber, water and other resources than those in low-income countries
• in Canada, we use a disproportionate share of the planet’s natural resources and generate most of the world’s refuse
• Most of the solid waste produced end up in landfills, which can pollute underground water, and some waste does not decompose for centuries

Question 33

What is one solution to address the problem of solid waste?

Answer 33

Use less and recycle (reuse resources we would otherwise discard)

Question 34

What is the status of municipal waste in Canada?

Answer 34

Canada received a “D” on its report card issued by the Conference Board of Canada; ranked last out of 17 countries (2015)

Produced 729 kg per capita of municipal waste (2010), twice as much as lowest producer (Japan)

Question 35

What is the hydrologic cycle?

Answer 35

Earth naturally recycles water and refreshes the land

• 97% of earth’s water (in oceans) is evaporated and form clouds
• water vapour that rises is relatively pure
• water falls to Earth as rain, draining into streams and rivers, returning to sea

Question 36

Issues with global water supply?

Answer 36

• water supply a concern in much of NA and Asia; people look to rivers rather than rainfall for water
• UN predicts that by 2025, 2/3 of planet’s people will be living in “water-stressed conditions”
• global consumption of freshwater has doubled since 1950 and rising steadily
• some areas using groundwater faster than can be replenished naturally despite plenty of rainfall
• households account for 11% of water use; industry uses 19%; irrigation uses 70%

Question 37

Ranking of Canada’s water use?

Answer 37

lowest municipal water prices, some of the highest per capita water use among rich nations

ranks 15 out of 16 peer countries

Question 38

What are rainforests?

Answer 38

regions of dense forestation, most of which circle the globe close to the equator

Question 39

What are the threats to rainforests?

Answer 39

Losing rainforests for many reasons:

• ranchers burning forested areas for grazing land for cows (for beef)
• hardwood trade requires cutting down trees

World’s rainforests now 50% of their original size, continue to shrink by about 1% annually

Rainforests critical for protecting Earth’s biodiversity and climate

Question 40

What is the issue of global warming?

Answer 40

global warming: a rise in earth’s average temperature due to an increasing concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

• CO2 is rising; atmospheric CO2 is now 44% higher than it was 250 years ago and rising rapidly
• planet’s temperature could rise by 1.5 to 2.5 Celsius
• polar ice caps are melting, and can rise the sea level enough to cover low-lying land around the world, creating 100 million climate change refugees

Question 41

Why are rainforests important in preventing global warming?

Answer 41

• cleanse atmosphere of carbon dioxide and expel oxygen

- but they are being destroyed by burning

Question 42

What are the problems with declining biodiversity?

Answer 42

1. Biodiversity provides varied source of human food, necessary to feed rapidly increasing population:
   splicing crops with more exotic plants make food more bountiful and robust; bees are necessary in the growth of plants (but declined by 1/3 in NA and 2/3 in Middle East)
2. Biodiversity is vital genetic resource used by medical and pharmaceutical researchers to produce compounds for medicine:
   compound from rosy periwinkle helped create compound for leukemia
   studying Mexican forest yam helped create oral birth control pill
3. Beauty and complexity of natural environment are diminished: loss of any species of life
   3/4 of world’s 10k species of birds are declining
4. Extinction of any species if irreversible and final

Question 43

What is environmental racism?

Answer 43

patterns of development that expose poor people, especially minorities to environmental hazards

Question 44

What are the reasons for and implications of environmental racism?

Answer 44

• poor and visible minorities drawn to factories to look for work, could only afford to live in undesirable areas (often near plants/mills)
• high levels of air pollution causes diseases like asthma, stroke, heart disease, lung cancer
• jobs of low-income people are most affected by global warming (e.g. those who work outdoors like farmers)

Question 45

What is environmental sexism?

Answer 45

environmental patterns that place girls and women at a disadvantage and threaten their well-being

3/4 of water-fetching (travelling to get water) is carried out by women and girls (no pay and kept from schooling and other work)

Question 46

What is an ecologically sustainable culture?

Answer 46

A way of life that meets the needs of the present generation without threatening the environmental legacy of future generations

Question 47

What are the necessary strategies to sustainable living?

Answer 47

1. bring population growth under control: high population strains the natural environment
2. conserve finite resources: using resources efficiently, seeking alternative sources of energy, living with less
3. reduce waste: use less and recycle more

Question 48

What are the 3 preconditions of cities?

Answer 48

1. Favourable ecology –> people in cities need farmers growing food to sustain them
2. Advanced technology –> need tech for infrastructure (sewage, roads, transportation, electricity, housing)
3. Well-developed social organization –> government, a sense of culture/identity to reduce anomie

Question 49

Explain the three stages of urbanization

Answer 49

First urban revolution: cities appeared 10,000 years ago, pre-industrial cities had low-rise buildings, narrow, winding streets, personal social ties

Second urban revolution: began at about 1750 as Industrial Revolution propelled rapid urban growth in Europe; cities had wide, regular streets; urban life more impersonal due to increasing size and focus on commerce

Third urban revolution: now occurring in poor countries

Question 50

What happened in the Second Revolution?

Answer 50

• City size increased dramatically and quickly
• The shape of the city was altered –> to planned, grid pattern of roads (more efficient)
• High-density housing, price of housing increases
• Center of the city shifted from the place of worship to the industrial/finance centre
• Dramatic rise in medical pathologies
• Dramatic rise in social pathologies: crime, substance abuse, family dysfunction, huge gap between rich and poor

Question 51

What characterized the birth of suburbs?

Answer 51

• People (especially white-collared workers) want to live away from the city core to escape many problems like noise, pollution, sanitation, etc.
• Suburbs = highly planned and engineered, cheap land for developers, distinctly north american
• White-collared workers still need to commute into the city for work
• -> Need a car, road infrastructure, etc.

Question 52

Stages of decentralization of cities?

Answer 52

1. People move to cities to work in factories
2. Some want to move away to the suburbs to escape city’s problems
3. Factories begin to move out of the cities (due to many reasons like labour being too costly);

Question 53

Why was the shopping mall created?

Answer 53

• mid-20th century idea

- allow people to make errands, especially on the weekend (groceries, movies, activities, etc.)

Question 54

What are edge cities?

Answer 54

when businesses start moving into suburbs but they then become independent cities

business centres some distance from the old downtowns

have a mix of corporate office buildings, shopping malls, hotels, entertainment complexes

starts out at suburbs but different, as they contain mostly homes (like Surrey outside Vancouver)

Question 55

What is urban sprawl/decentralization?

Answer 55

the rapid geographic expansion of cities and towns

characterized by low-density residential housing, single-use zoning, increased reliance on private automobile for transportation

Question 56

Explain the trends in people moving to the suburbs

Answer 56

• overwhelmingly middle-class white people with considerable discretionary income
• represents systemic differences in who has access to education, jobs, social standing
• “white flight” –> white people moving away from noise and pollution of city, and away from people of colour

Question 57

Why were immigrants moving to cities committing crime?

Answer 57

Due to the environment; many immigrants did not have a criminal history in the country they came from

Many did not have the skills to work in the city, were previously farmers

The incidence of anomie (Emile Durkheim)

Question 58

What are ways to attract people back to urban centres?

Answer 58

• attract people to live, work, and play in the urban centres –> culture, entertainment, etc.
• make urban centres safer –> crime prevention through enviromental design

Question 59

What were the factors facilitating the ‘return to the city’?

Answer 59

1. affordability and distance – smaller condos, shorter commute
2. economic changes – growth in service industry required office space in cities instead of factories
3. job growth and change – attracting IT industry, giving IT businesses discounts
4. cultural changes in lifestyle – cool places and activities in the city

Question 60

What is gentrification?

Answer 60

the process of rejuvenating “run-down” areas by having the middle and upper classes move into these areas to work and live

working-class communities are displaced by an influx of middle-class property developers

Question 61

What is the Stage Theory of Gentrification?

Answer 61

1. People who are young, educated, have no kids move into low-rent areas
2. Older people eventually follow seeing the area is now safer
3. Demand for middle-class homes and amenities grows
4. Land prices rise quickly
5. Original community driven out (displacement)
6. Need to now house more people as the city densifies –> building more commercial developments that don’t use so much land for parking (like Marine Gateway)