Chapter 15 - Challenges to the Peace Settlement

Question 1

What happened in November 1918?

Answer 1

The Republican Party became the majority party in the US Congress

Question 2

What happened on 10th January 1920?

Answer 2

League of Nations commenced business

Question 3

What happened in March 1920?

Answer 3

US senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles or allow the USA to join the League of Nations

Question 4

What happened in January 1921?

Answer 4

British and French troops occupied parts of Germany after Germany refused to pay reparations

Question 5

What happened in September 1923?

Answer 5

Ataturk repudiated the Treaty of Sevres

Question 6

Why did isolationism increase in popularity in America?

Answer 6

It was as a result of its war experience

Question 7

How were Wilson’s 14 points received in America?

Answer 7

• They were generally very popular - Some, especially Republicans, were dubious about the idea of a League of Nations - Businessmen worried about the impact of free trade, favouring protectionism as the economic embodiment of isolationism

Question 8

Describe the setting up of the League of Nations

Answer 8

• Anti war sentiment 1919 led to desire to resolve international disputes and tensions through creation of multilateral organisation - delegates of sovereign nations to discuss, debate and arbitrate disputes with member states - Wilson supported it greatly - speech to US Congress January 1918 - 14 points - “general association of nations” for “affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity” - South African Jan Smuts wrote about LON and how it might function - Paris Peace Conference 1919 - 44 countries ratified Covenant LON - new body called into being in Jan 1920 - 1st LON assembly - all member nations, 18 nation executive council - Britain, France, US, Italy and Japan to sit as permanent members of executive - LON - 42 founding members, none of central powers had invitations for membership of league

Question 9

How did political developments in the immediate aftermath of the war help to secure rejection of the TOV and LON by the US Senate?

Answer 9

• At the very end of the war, the USA held midterm elections - These resulted in the Republican Party gaining the majority of seats in the Congress - Not only was Wilson a Democrat, but the Republicans promoted themselves as champions of isolationism, making his ideals appear increasingly at odds with American public opinion - The 66th Congress commenced in March 1919, just as Wilson was negotiating the TOV in Europe

Question 10

Describe the American political structure

Answer 10

• US Constitution embodies the “separation of powers” principle - this keeps the legislative, executive and judicial branches separate to prevent the abuse of power - President is Head of State and is voted for in a presidential election every 4 years - Congressmen are elected to the House of Representatives every 2 years - Senators are elected to the Senate every 6 years - Midterm elections are held 2 years into a President’s term of office - Foreign treaties can be proposed by the President but need the approval of the senate, which Wilson failed to obtain in 1919

Question 11

What can it mean for a Democrat President if Republicans win the majority in Congress in a midterm election (or vice versa)?

Answer 11

The President will find it much more difficult to gain legislative support for his policies (as was experienced by Wilson)

Question 12

What did Wilson’s 6 month absence mean for his popularity in America?

Answer 12

• It left something of a power vacuum in Washington just as America was adjusting to the new conditions of peacetime after 20 months of war - The USA was experiencing a post-war slump as industries re-adjusted their output away from munitions and immigration was of increasing concern to many Americans - The President, preoccupied with international affairs, saw his earlier popularity drain away - To reclaim his popularity, the TOV would have to gain strong approval from many Americans

Question 13

Which points of the TOV were Republicans like Senator Henry Cabot Lodge most disappointed with?

Answer 13

• Freedom of the seas blocked by Britain - Self determination had not been applied to all regions - Wilson had sacrificed this to please the Japanese by allowing them to continue their occupation of Shandong rather than return it to Chinese sovereignty - this was particularly concerning as the region came under the American sphere of influence - LON had mandates in former colonies and the British Empire continued to exist - this offended the American campaign for anti-colonialism - particularly disappointed by lack of self-determination for Ireland - Many Americans expected a fairer treaty - concern that the treaty would cause bitterness and a desire for revenge - Restriction of America’s freedom of action - Monroe Doctrine stated that the US should remain free from European influence

Question 14

Why were American businessmen and Republicans deeply uncomfortable with the role the US would be assigned if they joined the LON?

Answer 14

• By 1919 the USA was the most influential and economically powerful nation in the world - Wilson’s opponents therefore feared the USA would be relied upon more than others to uphold the TOV and settle international disputes, thereby indefinitely committing itself to troop deployment and long term involvement in European affairs - Though the USA lost far fewer men than their European allies, the conflict was a remote one and many ordinary Americans did not feel that even a small sacrifice was worthwhile

Question 15

Describe American opposition to the LON

Answer 15

• LON reliant on US support but Wilson found American attitudes towards it to be mixed in 1919 - Lukewarm consensus that a multinational body was necessary, more for peace and stability of Europe than any other reason, but strong opposition to some aspects of covenant - Article X was concerning to Republicans - bound members to League to “respect and preserve…the territorial integrity and political independence” of other members - interpreted it as an open-ended treaty hamstringing American foreign policy - More conspiratorial Americans said LON = globalist “new world order” - supranational government overriding sovereignty and national interests of the US

Question 16

How did Wilson’s popularity and power decline further after the TOV?

Answer 16

• Though there was bitter discontent with the treaty, Wilson went on a speaking tour of the US in autumn 1919 to vigorously defend the settlement - Already overworked in Europe, this proved too much for his health and he suffered a stroke in September 1919, further diminishing his capacity to lead the country - After initially proposing to attach their own conditions to the TOV, in March 1920 the Senate refused to ratify it and refused to allow the USA to become a member of the LON

Question 17

What is meant by the term “ratify”?

Answer 17

To give the final recognition to a treaty following its signature by the parties involved

Question 18

Where did the idea of “no entangling alliances” come from?

Answer 18

President Thomas Jefferson’s inaugural speech in 1801 - promised “honest friendship with all nations - entangling alliances with none”

Question 19

Who was Wilson succeeded by?

Answer 19

The Republican Warren Harding

Question 20

What did Harding’s government extend the policy of isolationism to?

Answer 20

• Immigration (banned Asian immigration and introduced quotas to limit the number of southern and eastern European immigrants) - The economy

Question 21

How did Harding create economic isolation?

Answer 21

• Tariffs were introduced/increased to drive up the cost of foreign imports in order to protect domestic markets - The USA’s trading partners responded with “retaliatory tariffs” which in turn made American imports to their countries more expensive - The result was a decline in global trade, which made international cooperation less important to countries’ economies

Question 22

What method of international relations had the LON hoped to foster?

Answer 22

Internationalism - a very different approach to how foreign affairs had been conducted previously and to how crises and disputes had been resolved before 1914

Question 23

What did the British diplomat Lord Robert Cecil call the LON?

Answer 23

“a great experiment”

Question 24

What were the major problems with the LON?

Answer 24

• Even the leaders of the League doubted its success now that the USA was not a member - Leadership was left to Britain and France, giving it “European bias” (Zara Steiner), and since the USSR and Germany were not allowed to join, the impression was given that the League was a “victors’ club” which was more likely to defend their own interests than promote international peace - peacekeeping became “Eurocentric”, damaging its credibility when dealing with crises - The French and British were not optimistic - Lloyd George called it a “lame duck”, believing it to be useless and counterproductive without America - The British just wanted to rebuild their trade and protect their empire and France was preoccupied with fears of the Germans and never really trusted Britain - Without the USA they lacked authority, political influence and economic power - The League’s biggest sanction was trade boycotts, but as America was the greatest exporter, this punishment was practically useless as they could still trade

Question 25

When did Austria and Bulgaria join the League of Nations?

Answer 25

December 1920

Question 26

When did Hungary join the League of Nations?

Answer 26

September 1922

Question 27

When did Germany join the League of Nations?

Answer 27

September 1926

Question 28

What was the final Treaty of Versailles like?

Answer 28

• After 6 months of negotiations, delegates to Paris reached awkward compromises fashioned into a Treaty - Formally signed in Hall of Mirrors at Palace of Versailles 28th June 1919 - Few delegates were fully happy, with Germany being the most unhappy, whose delegates had been excluded until May 1919, after which attendance was a formality so they could be lectured about what had been declared on their behalf - Article 231 was of greatest concern to Berlin - “war guilt clause” - Germany had to accept full responsibility for the war - drafted by American legal experts who said Germany could only be held liable for reparations if they admitted starting the war

Question 29

What was the fate of Germany as a result of the Treaty of Versailles?

Answer 29

• Territorial and economic penalties were extensive - Germany lost 13% land, 6 mil Germans were made citizens of other nations and 15% German agricultural land and 10% industry was given to France - Germany’s merchant fleet mostly went to Britain, lost colonial possessions, Alsace-Lorraine returned to France, the Rhineland was demilitarised and occupied and Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark - Germany was forbidden from political or economic union with Austria and Posen and West Prussia went to Poland, cutting East Prussia off from Germany - The army was cut to 100,000 men, forbidden from tanks, warplanes and heavy artillery, the navy cut to 15,000 personnel, only allowed 6 battleships and no subs - Germany indefinitely excluded from LON

Question 30

How did France react to the TOV?

Answer 30

• Did not find satisfaction - Not immediately ratified - subject to 6 weeks of fierce debate in the Chamber of Deputies - Brought to the surface some of the sharpest divisions in French politics - Socialists argued the Treaty was too harsh - Germany was now democratic and France should cooperate - Centre and right wing pointed out that it contained very few assurances against future German aggression - Germany was now surrounded by small, weak states and Clemenceau had failed to secure the Rhineland as a buffer state - General Foch (Supreme Allied Commander) - the treaty was “not peace but an armistice for 20 years” - Eventually ratified by the French but Clemenceau’s popularity had greatly diminished - he was defeated in the 1920 presidential election

Question 31

How did Britain react to the TOV?

Answer 31

• Lloyd George expressed concerns over the TOV even before the Germans signed in June 1919 - German delegation’s rebuttal to the terms won Lloyd George’s admiration - He tried to convince Wilson and Clemenceau to reconsider key terms but they refused - However, he was greeted as a hero by the British public upon his return from France in summer 1919 - Issue of reparations most criticised by Britain - Lloyd George’s negotiation of Britain’s share was complicated by the fact that he owed £1 billion to America - The British were convinced that the reparations on Germany would cause long-term economic misery for Germans who now had a democratic gov not responsible for causing the war - A failed German economy would disadvantage Britain - it would have a negative impact on British trade and could cause a communist revolution

Question 32

Who were the Council of Four?

Answer 32

Comprised the Big three (Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George) and Orlando of Italy

Question 33

What was Germany’s initial reaction to the TOV?

Answer 33

• When the German delegation was shown the terms, Count Brockdorff-Rantzau made a defiant speech against it - When the Allies sent a final ultimatum to the Germans on 16th June, the gov resigned in protest and the Chancellor Scheidemann announced “May the hand wither that signs this treaty” - The ultimatum was a threat of renewal of conflict and immediate resumption of the naval blockade if the Treaty was not signed - A new gov was formed with Gustav Bauer as Chancellor and a Reichstag vote was held on the peace settlement - 237 voted in favour, 138 voted against and 5 refused to vote - The FM (Muller) and Colonial Minister (Bell) were sent to sign the Treaty on behalf of Germany

Question 34

What was the public opinion about the TOV in Germany?

Answer 34

• The treatment under the TOV was not the pure reason for Hitler’s 1933 rise to power, but the German gov’s acceptance of the terms created a toxic feeling of betrayal among many - The signing was an early and significant blow to the rep of the Weimar gov - the treaty was seen as a “diktat” as the leaders had no say in it - Returning troops felt that Germany had been making significant gains in autumn 1918 and so felt a sense of deep betrayal - as Germany had not been defeated and there had been no allied invasion, the treaty was seen as a “stab in the back”

Question 35

What is meant by the term “November Criminals”?

Answer 35

• Extreme right-wing groups in Germany began propaganda campaigns in the aftermath of the armistice and TOV - Claimed that soldiers of WW1 had been betrayed by the gov - Politicians involved in signing the armistice were branded “November Criminals”, a slogan adopted by Hitler in the 1920s - As Hitler’s popularity grew, so did the slogan - it was among the factors that eroded the credibility of the Weimar Republic

Question 36

Why did Germany feel so punished under the TOV?

Answer 36

• Germans viewed the war guilt clause and exclusion from the LON as pride denting and resentful - they felt that Russia was equally, if not more responsible for starting the war. This was further exacerbated by the military restrictions, which left Germany vulnerable to invasion - There were genuine concerns that the 6.5 million Germans who now lived under foreign rule would be persecuted by their new govs and right wingers felt they should be brought back under German jurisdiction - Reparations was the most unpalatable element - claimed that the allies were deliberately trying to starve German mothers and children - the Weimar gov petitioned to renegotiate the amount and schedule of payment, and in 1921, upon Germany’s refusal to pay, 3 cities were occupied by British and French troops - in November the government began making payments as the scale of reparations had been adjusted in German favour