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Anatomy and Physiology 1 > Chapter 14: The Brain and Cranial Nerves > Flashcards

Chapter 14: The Brain and Cranial Nerves Flashcards

1
Q

Brain Anatomy: An Overview

A

Half of CNS
* Weight: 1,450 – 1,600 g

Divided into regions
* Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
* Cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum,
brain stem

  • 12 cranial nerves
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2
Q

Gray and White Matter

A

Gray matter
* Neurosomas, dendrites, synapses
* Forms cortex
* Forms deeper nuclei

White matter
* Bundles of axons
* Forms tracts

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3
Q

Cranial Meninges

A
  • Membranes surrounding brain

Functions
* Protection of brain
* Structural framework for blood vessels

Three meninges
* Dura mater
* Arachnoid mater
* Pia mater

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4
Q

Dura Mater

A

Most superficial
* Potential space

  • Tough, fibrous

Two layers
* Periosteal (superficial)
* Meningeal (deep)

Layers fused except at dural sinuses
* Collect blood from brain

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5
Q

Dural Folds

A
  • Divide brain regions
  • Stabilize and support brain

Falx cerebri
* Separates cerebral hemispheres

Tentorium cerebelli
* Divides cerebrum from cerebellum

Falx cerbelli
* Partially separates cerebellar hemispheres

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6
Q

Arachnoid Mater

A
  • Intermediate
  • Thin, transparent

Subdural space
* Between dura and arachnoid

Subarachnoid space
* Between arachnoid and pia
* Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
* Crossed by arachnoid trabeculae

Arachnoid granulations project into dural sinuses
* Return CSF to blood

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7
Q

Pia Mater

A
  • Deepest
  • Thin, delicate

Conforms to surface anatomy of brain
* Dips into sulci

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8
Q

Ventricle Overview

A
  • Fluid-filled chambers
  • Cerebrospinal fluid

House choroid plexus
* Capillaries + ependymal cells
* Produces cerebrospinal fluid
* Blood-CSF barrier
* Tight junctions between ependymal cells
* Part of brain barrier system

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9
Q

Ventricles

A

Lateral ventricle
* Paired
* Cerebrum
* Connect to third via interventricular foramen

Third ventricle
* Unpaired
* Diencephalon
* Connect to fourth via cerebral aqueduct

Fourth ventricle
* Unpaired
* Between brainstem and cerebellum
* Gives rise to spinal central canal

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10
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

A
  • Clear, colorless fluid
  • Constantly produced and reabsorbed
  • Fills ventricles, canals, subarachnoid space
  • Bathes external surface

Produced by filtering blood
* Composition different from plasma

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11
Q

Functions of Cerebrospinal Fluid

A

Buoyancy
* Supports weight of brain

Protection
* Cushions brain
* Slows movement within skull

Chemical stability
* Regulates environment of nervous tissue
* Rinses wastes from nervous tissue
* Circulates nutrients and chemicals

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12
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid Flow

A

Flows due to
* Own pressure
* Ependymal cilia motion
* Pulsation of brain
* Due to heartbeat

  • Flows through ventricles in sequence

Enters subarachnoid space
* Via apertures
* Arachnoid granulations drain excess fluid

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13
Q

Blood Supply to Brain

A

High oxygen and glucose demands
* Requires constant blood flow
* Disruptions cause loss of consciousness or permanent damage

Major arteries
* Internal carotid artery
* Vertebral artery

Major veins
* Internal jugular vein

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14
Q

Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

A
  • Part of brain barrier system (BBS)

Formed by:
* Tight junctions between endothelial cells of capillaries
* Basement membrane endothelial cells
* Perivascular feet of astrocytes

Prevents entry of harmful or disruptive substances
* Transport is selective, directional

Absent or reduced in some areas
* Circumventricular organs (CVOs) in 3rd and 4th ventricles
* Needed to monitor blood composition

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15
Q

What Can Cross the BBS?

A

Highly permeable
* Glucose, water
* Lipid-soluble materials
* Respiratory gases
* Alcohol, nicotine, caffeine, anesthetics

Somewhat permeable
* Na+, K+, Cl-, urea, creatinine

Impermeable
* Proteins, formed elements, most antibiotics, cancer drugs

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16
Q

Brainstem Overview

A
  • Connects brain to spinal cord
  • Houses majority of cranial nerve nuclei

Divided into three regions
* Midbrain
* Pons
* Medulla oblongata

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17
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A
  • Most inferior region

Wider compared to spinal cord
* Distinctive anatomical features

Houses ascending and descending tracts
* Connect brain to spinal cord

Houses cranial nerve nuclei
* Nerves VIII (partial) – XII

  • Houses portions of reticular formation
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18
Q

Medulla Oblongata: Notable Structures

A

Pyramids
* Anterior
* Houses corticospinal tracts

Gracile and cuneate nuclei
* Axons form medial lemniscus

Olives
* Lateral to pyramids
* Contain olivary nuclei

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19
Q

Medulla Oblongata: Pathways

A

Corticospinal tracts
* Descending (motor) tracts
* Carry signals from cerebral cortex to skeletal muscles
* Tracts decussate

Medial lemniscus
* Ascending (sensory) pathway
* Carries general sensory information
* Synapse with thalamus
* Decussate

Inferior olivary nuclei
* Relay between other CNS structures and cerebellum

Tectospinal tract
* Controls neck muscle

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20
Q

Medulla Oblongata: Neural
Networks

A

Sensory Functions
* Hearing
* Touch
* Temperature
* Pressure
* Taste
* Pain

Motor Functions
* Chewing
* Salivation
* Swallowing
* Gagging
* Vomiting
* Speech
* Coughing
* Sneezing
* Sweating
* Respiration
* Cardiovascular control
* Gastrointestinal control
* Movements of head, neck, shoulders

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21
Q

Medulla Oblongata: Centers

A

Cardiac center
* Regulation of force and rate of contraction

Vasomotor center
* Regulation of blood vessel diameter

Respiratory centers
* Regulates rhythm and depth of breathing

  • Other centers (vomiting, swallowing, etc.)
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22
Q

Pons

A

Middle region of brainstem
* Separated from medulla by groove

Houses cranial nerve nuclei
* V – VIII (partial)

Houses continuations of tracts
* Ascending and descending

  • Houses portions of reticular formation
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23
Q

Pons: Notable Structures

A

Middle cerebellar peduncles
* Posterior
* Connect pons and midbrain to cerebellum

Portion of fourth ventricle
* Lies between pons and cerebellum

White matter tracts (fascicles)
* Longitudinal projection tracts send signals up and down brainstem
* Transverse tracts connect left and right cerebellar hemispheres

Pontine respiratory center
* Alters rhythm of breathing

Other reticular formation nuclei
* Sleep, posture

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24
Q

Midbrain

A
  • Most superior region

Connects brainstem to diencephalon
* Hindbrain to forebrain

Houses continuations of tracts
* Ascending and descending

Houses cranial nerve nuclei
* III and IV

  • Houses portions of reticular formation
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25
Q

Notable Structures of the
Midbrain

A

Cerebral aqueduct
* Surrounded by central gray substance
* Role in pain awareness

Tectum
* Posterior to cerebral aqueduct
* Superior and inferior colliculi
* Visual and auditory reflexes

Cerebral peduncles
* Anterior to cerebral aqueduct
* Anchor cerebrum to brainstem
* Divided into three regions

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26
Q

Midbrain: Cerebral Peduncle
Divisions

A

Tegmentum
* Houses red nucleus
* Tracts connect to cerebellum
* Participate in fine motor control

Substantia nigra
* Motor center
* Inhibits thalamus and basal nuclei
* Suppress unwanted movement

Cerebral crus
* Connect cerebrum to pons
* House corticospinal tracts

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27
Q

Midbrain: Superior and Inferior
Colliculi

A

Superior colliculi
* Control extrinsic eye muscle
* Direct gaze
* Track moving objects
* Move eyes and head due to visual stimuli
* Connected to other visual control nuclei

Inferior colliculi
* Relays information from inner ear to thalamus and other brain regions
* Sensitive to time delays between sounds between ears (sound location)
* Process pitch fluctuations
* Turn head in reflexive responses to sound
* Startle reflex to noise

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28
Q

The Reticular Formation

A

Network of grey matter
* Housed between tracts and distinct nuclei
* > 100 neural networks

  • Passes through all regions of brainstem
    and upper spinal cord
  • Connections to cerebrum

Networks have numerous functions
* Sensory and motor

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29
Q

Reticular Formation Functions:
Somatic Motor Control

A

Motor cortex neurons synapse with reticular formation nuclei
* Form reticulospinal tracts: alter muscle tension
* Balance, posture, muscle tone

Relays sensory signals to cerebellum
* Visual, auditory, vestibular
* Required for cerebellum’s role as motor coordinator

  • Gaze centers allow eyes to track motion and fix on objects

Central pattern generators produce rhythmic signals
* Breathing and swallowing

30
Q

Reticular Formation Functions

A

Cardiovascular control
* Via cardiac and vasomotor centers
* Alters cardiac output and blood pressure

Pain modulation
* Route for pain signals from lower body to cerebral cortex
* Descending analgesic tracts can block pain sensation

Sleep and consciousness
* Reticular activating system (RAS)
* Level of control over which sensations reach cerebrum
* Role in stages of consciousness: alertness, sleep
* Damage can lead to permanent coma

Habituation
* Reticular activating system (RAS)
* Brain ignores unimportant, repetitive stimuli
* Novel or important stimuli are still attended too

31
Q

Cerebellum Overview

A

Second largest region of brain
* 10% of brain’s mass
* 50% of brain’s neurons

  • Component of hindbrain
  • Numerous granule cell neurons

Distinctive Purkinje cells
* Highly branched dendrites in single plane

32
Q

Cerebellar Anatomy

A

Divided into hemispheres
* Connected by vermis
* Covered by folia separated by sulci

Each hemisphere divided into lobes
* Anterior and posterior
* Divided by primary fissure

Grey matter
* Cerebellar cortex: receives input
* Deep nuclei: handles output

White matter
* Arbor vitae

33
Q

Cerebellar Peduncles

A
  • Connect cerebellum to brainstem
  • Contain bundles of nerve fibers

Superior: midbrain
* Output from cerebellum

Middle: pons
* Input from rest of brain

Inferior: medulla oblongata
* Input from spine

34
Q

Cerebellar Functions

A
  • Region is still poorly understood
  • General function appears to be
    evaluation of sensory input

Cerebellar lesions affect a number of functions
* Sensory, motor, linguistic, emotional, other nonmotor functions

Possible involvement with:
* Tactile sensation
* Spatial perception
* Timekeeping
* Predicting path of moving object
* Hearing
* Language output
* Planning/scheduling
* Emotion and impulse control

35
Q

Cerebellum: Motor Functions

A
  • Important for motor coordination
  • Aids in learning motor skills
  • Maintain muscle tone and posture
  • Smooths muscle contractions
  • Coordinates eye and body movements
  • Coordinates motion of different joints
36
Q

Cerebellum as Motor Comparator

A

Receives information from
* Cerebrum
* Eyes and inner ears
* Proprioceptors in joints and muscles

Cerebrum initiates movement
* Sends “plan” to cerebellum

Cerebellum compares “plan” to actual movements
* Via Purkinje cells

Errors stimulate deep nuclei
* Send information to thalamus and brainstem
* Information sent to motor association area
* Information sent to reticulospinal and vestibulospinal tracts
* Error corrected

37
Q

Diencephalon Overview

A

Inferior to cerebrum
* Deep to cerebral hemispheres
* Component of forebrain

  • Superior to brainstem

Divided into
* Epithalamus
* Thalamus
* Hypothalamus

38
Q

Thalamus Structure

A

Paired, oval masses
* Joined by interthalamic adhesion (medial)

  • 4/5ths of diencephalon
  • Laterally: protrude into lateral ventricles
  • Medially: protrude into third ventricle

Composed of 23 nuclei
* Divided into five groups

39
Q

Thalamus Functions

A

Sensation
* Ascending sensory neurons synapse with thalamic nuclei
* General and special senses
* Thalamus processes information
* Some information sent on to cerebrum
* Information sent to corresponding cortical region

Motor control
* Relays signals from cerebellum to cerebrum
* Feedback loops between cerebral cortex and basal nuclei

Memory and emotion
* Nuclei associated with limbic system

40
Q

Hypothalamus Structure

A
  • Inferior and anterior to thalamus

Runs from optic chiasm to mammillary bodies
* Mammillary nuclei relay limbic signals to thalamus

  • Makes up walls and floor of third ventricle
  • Pituitary gland attached via infundibulum
  • Divided into nuclei
41
Q

Hypothalamus Functions

A

Hormone secretion
* Produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone
* Produces regulatory hormones which control anterior pituitary gland
* Influence on metabolism, growth, stress response, reproduction

Autonomic effects
* Integrating center for the autonomic nervous system
* Sends descending fibers to brainstem
* Influence heart rate, blood pressure, GI tract secretion and motility, etc.

Thermoregulation
* Integrating (control) center for negative feedback loop
* Monitors body temperature
* Activates mechanisms to control temperature

Regulation of food intake
* Monitors blood nutrient level
* Receptors for hormones that influence hunger and satiety
* Receptors for hormones that influence body mass

Regulation of water intake
* Osmoreceptors monitor concentration of blood
* Promotes thirst and drinking
* Release of ADH

Sleep and circadian rhythms
* Part of reticular formation
* Nuclei regulate sleep/waking rhythms
* Controls 24-hour circadian rhythm

Memory
* Mammillary nuclei lie in pathway between hippocampus and
thalamus
* Lesions cause memory defects

Emotional behavior and sexual response
* Centers for anger, fear, aggression, contentment, pleasure
* Centers for sexual drive, copulation, orgasm

42
Q

Epithalamus

A

Smallest portion of diencephalon
* Posterior
* Forms roof of third ventricle

Contains pineal gland
* Produces melatonin
* Possible role in circadian rhythms
* Possible role in mood and sexual maturation

Contains habenula
* Relays signals from limbic system to midbrain
* Connects limbic system to rest of brain

43
Q

Cerebrum Overview

A

Largest region of brain
* Encompasses diencephalon

  • Component of forebrain

Extensively folded compared to other animals
* Increases surface area

44
Q

Cerebral Anatomy

A

Two hemispheres
* Divided by longitudinal cerebral fissure
* Connected by corpus callsoum

  • Separated from cerebellum via transverse cerebral fissure

Divided into five lobes
* Divided by sulci

Surface covered by raised gyri
* Divided by sulci

45
Q

Lobes and Sulci

A

Frontal lobe
* Most anterior/rostral
* Runs to central sulcus

Parietal lobe
* Most superior lobe of brain
* Begins at central sulcus
* Extends to parieto-occipital sulcus

Occipital lobe
* Most posterior/caudal
* Begins at parieto-occipital sulcus

Temporal lobe
* Lateral, horizontal
* Separated from parietal lobe by lateral sulcus

Insula
* Deep to other lobes
* Deep to lateral sulcus

46
Q

Cerebral Gray and White Matter

A

White Matter
* Permits communication
between different regions
* Majority of cerebral volume
* Divided into tracts

Gray Matter
* Responsible for neural
integration
* Three locations
* Cerebral cortex
* Basal nuclei
* Limbic system

47
Q

Cerebral White Matter

A

Association tracts
* Connect regions within a hemisphere
* Short fibers: gyri within lobe
* Long fibers: lobes within hemisphere

Commissural tracts
* Connect hemispheres through commissures
* Most pass through corpus callosum

Projection tracts
* Connect cerebrum with rest of body
* Ascending and descending

48
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A
  • Gray matter
  • Lines outer cerebrum
  • Thin (2 - 3 mm)
  • 40% of brain’s mass

Complex anatomy
* Divided into layered regions
* Specialized neurons
* Stellate cells and pyramidal cells

49
Q

Basal Nuclei

A

Gray matter
* Lateral to thalamus
* Paired in each hemisphere

Receive input from
* Cerebral cortex
* Substantia nigra (inhibitory)

Send output to
* Thalamus
* Relays signals to cerebral cortex and midbrain

Confirmed structures
* Caudate nucleus
* Putamen
* Globus pallidus

50
Q

Basal Nuclei and Motor Control

A
  • Determine onset and cessation of voluntary movements
  • Rhythmic, repetitive movements of hips and shoulders during
    walking

Highly practiced, learned motor behaviors
* Typing a shoe , writing, etc.

Lesions cause dyskinesias
* Movement disorders

  • Note: these are only some selected functions in motor control
51
Q

Limbic System

A
  • Gray matter

Structures found in a ring
* Around corpus callosum and
thalamus

All components are paired
* Present in both hemispheres

  • Emotion and learning
52
Q

Components of the Limbic System

A

Structures interconnected via fiber tracts
* Permits feedback between components

Confirmed structures
* Cingulate gyrus
* Hippocampus
* Amygdala

Other components
* Mammillary bodies
* Some hypothalamic nuclei
* Some thalamic nuclei
* Basal nuclei (portions)
* Prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex

53
Q

Limbic System Functions

A

Roles in emotion
* Amygdala and hypothalamus
* Emotions originate here
* Amygdala can link sensations to emotional responses
* Output to hypothalamus and brainstem: alters motor responses
* Output to prefrontal cortex: permits conscious expression of emotions

Memory
* Hippocampus

Houses gratification and aversion centers
* Linked to stimuli
* Roles in shaping behavior
* More likely to repeat pleasurable experiences
* Less likely to repeat unpleasant experiences

54
Q

Functions of the Cerebrum

A

Difficult to correlate specific function with a specific region
* Boundaries are indistinct, overlap exists
* Areas may have multiple functions
* Functions may be distributed (over many areas)

  • Typically divided into functional areas
55
Q

Cerebral Lateralization

A

Due to tracts decussating
* Receive information from opposite side of body
* Control effectors on opposite side of body

Hemispheres specialized for some different functions
* Cerebral (hemispheric) lateralization
* Functions may complement one another

Typically both hemispheres are used for all tasks
* Communicate via commissural tracts

Left Hemisphere (Usually)
* Categorical hemisphere
* Break info into fragments
* Linear analysis of info
* Spoken and written language
* Sequential and analytic
reasoning
* Posterior language area
* Motor speech area

Right Hemisphere (Usually)
* Representational hemisphere
* Integrated, holistic perception
of info
* Imagination and insight
* Artistic and musical skill
* Perception of patterns and
spatial relationships
* Sensory comparison
* Affective language area

56
Q

Cerebral Cortex: Functional Areas

A

Sensory areas
* Primary sensory cortex
* First receive sensory information
* Permits conscious awareness of sensation

Motor areas
* Primary motor cortex
* Voluntary control of skeletal muscle

Association areas
* Interpret information
* Involved with cognition
* Range of mental processes by which knowledge is acquired and used

57
Q

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

A

Postcentral gyrus
* Parietal lobe

Demonstrates somatopy
* Body regions correspond to specific brain regions
* Permits spatial discrimination of stimuli

More cortex dedicated to some areas
* Corresponds to sensitivity
* Sensory homunculus

Function
* Conscious perception of general senses

58
Q

Sensory Cortices of Special Senses

A

Primary visual
* Posterior occipital lobe

Primary auditory
* Superior temporal lobe and insula

Primary gustatory
* Inferior postcentral gyrus

Primary olfactory
* Medial temporal lobe, inferior surface of frontal lobe

59
Q

Primary Motor Area

A

Precentral gyrus
* Frontal lobe

  • Demonstrates somatopy

More cortex dedicated to some areas
* Corresponds to motor control
* Number of muscles and motor units
* Motor homunculus

Function
* Voluntary control of skeletal muscle

60
Q

Sensory Association Areas

A
  • Always located close to primary sensory cortex for sensation
  • Integrates and interpret sensory information
  • Store memories
61
Q

Motor Association (Premotor) Area

A
  • Frontal lobe, anterior to precentral gyrus

Plans motor movements
* Degree and sequence of contractions
* Plan transferred to primary motor area for execution

62
Q

Language Association Areas

A

Posterior language area (Wernicke)
* Posterior to lateral sulcus
* Receives input from visual, auditory, and somatosensory areas
* Recognition of written and spoken language
* Formulates speech, transmits to motor speech area
* Damage: fluent aphasia

Motor speech area (Broca)
* Inferior prefrontal cortex
* Receives plan for speech from posterior language area
* Creates motor plan for speech, sends to primary motor area
* Possible roles in language comprehension
* Damage: nonfluent aphasia

63
Q

Affective Language Area

A

Area opposite posterior language area
* Recognizes emotional context of another’s speech
* Damage impedes this ability

Area opposite motor speech area
* Add emotional content to spoken words
* Damage results in aprosody (flat, emotionless speech)

64
Q

Frontal Association Area (Prefrontal Area)

A
  • Anterior portion of frontal lobe

Frontal lobe integrates information
* From sensory and motor regions
* From other association area

Associated with cognition and higher functions
* Judgement, planning, decision making, conscience, reasoning, mood,
etc.

  • Conscious control of emotional expression
  • Damage personality disorders, loss of inhibition, inability to control
    expression of emotions
65
Q

Memory

A
  • Storage and recall of information

Neural level:
* Relies upon formation and modification of synapses
* Memory trace (engram): pathway of synapses associated with
memory
* Synaptic plasticity: synapse added, removed, modified
* Synaptic potentiation: transmission becomes easier with
repetition and learning

Involves multiple processes
* Learning: acquiring new information
* Memory proper: storage and retrieval
* Forgetting: eliminating unwanted or trivial information

66
Q

Three Categories of Memory

A

Immediate memory: what just happened
* Duration: seconds
* Comprehension of flow of events

Short term-memory (STM)
* Duration: seconds to hours
* Small information capacity
* Can be forgotten quickly
* Recitation allows better retention

Long-term memory (LTM)
* Duration: years to a lifetime
* Large information capacity
* Modification of synapses or adding more NT channels

67
Q

Structures Involved in Memory

A

Hippocampus transfers memories from STM to LTM
* Referred to as memory consolidation
* Does not store memory!

Long term memories stored in cerebral cortex
* Within appropriate region

Other regions associated with memory
* Cerebellum: learning motor skills
* Amygdala: emotional memory

68
Q

Memory Defects

A

Anterograde amnesia
* Inability to form new memories
* Can result from hippocampus damage

Retrograde amnesia
* Inability to recall stored LTM

69
Q

Cranial Nerve Overview

A
  • 12 pairs

Numbered from I – XII
* Anterior (rostral) to posterior
(caudal)

  • Peripheral nervous system

Associated primarily with
structures of the head and neck
* Vagus nerve is a notable exception

  • Sensory, motor, or mixed (both)
70
Q

Cranial Nerves

A

Olfactory Nerve I (S)
* Olfaction

Optic Nerve II (S)
* Vision

Oculomotor Nerve III (M)
* Somatic and autonomic motor functions of eye
* Innervates four of six eye muscles

Trochlear Nerve IV (M)
* Eye movements
* Innervates one eye muscle

Trigeminal Nerve V (B)
* Three branches
* Sensory: general senses of face
* Motor: mastication

Abducens Nerve VI (M)
* Eye movements
* Innervates one eye muscle

Facial Nerve VII (B)
* Sensory: taste
* Motor: facial expressions, secretion from salivary and lacrimal glands

Vestibulocochlear Nerve VIII (S)
* Hearing and equilibrium

Glossopharyngeal Nerve IX (B)
* Sensation (taste, general senses) from tongue, throat, outer ear
* Muscles of tongue and pharynx, salivary glands
* Chemoreceptors and baroreceptors in cardiovascular system

Vagus Nerve X (B)
* Control of cardiac, pulmonary, digestive, urinary functions
* Parasympathetic division

Accessory Nerve XI (M)
* Swallowing, movement of neck and shoulder muscles

Hypoglossal Nerve XII (M)
* Movements of tongue

Anatomy and Physiology 1 (2 decks)

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