Chapter 14 - Leadership Behavior

Question 1

Trait approaches

Answer 1

It assumed that if we could identify leadership qualities, we could select individuals for leadership positions based on their leadership traits.

Question 2

“Great Man Theories”

Answer 2

Leadership traits were focused on personality, needs, motives, values and even physical characteristics such as height and sex. One of the key traits they associated with leadership was being male.

Question 3

In the end, scholars concluded that traits were not significantly associated with leadership. Why?

Answer 3

A primary reason was the failure to look for situational and mediating variables, such as communication or interpersonal behaviors, that would help explain how traits are casually linked to outcomes.

Question 4

The behavioral approach

Answer 4

It focuses on identifying categories of relevant leadership behavior and examining their relationships with outcomes. It does this primarily through the use of interviews and questionnaires that gather subordinates’ perceptions of the supervisors’ behaviors.

Question 5

Much of the early work on behavioral approaches was centered at two universities, so they became known as the Ohio State and Michigan Studies.

Answer 5

These studies discovered that the majority of a manager’s leadership behaviors could be divided into two meta-categories: relations-oriented and task-oriented behavior

Question 6

Relations-oriented behavior (aka consideration)

Answer 6

Involves concern for relationships and interpersonal support. It focuses on employee-centered, or socioemotional, concerns. It focuses on the human relationship aspects of management. It shows that highly considerate managers are sensitive to people’s feelings and try to make things pleasant for followers. They do this by listening to subordinates and treating them as respected colleagues, defending subordinates when needed, being willing to accept suggestions, and consulting with subordinates on important matters.

Question 7

Task-oriented behavior (aka initiating structure)

Answer 7

Involves directive behavior focused on providing clarity and task focus. It addresses production-centered, or task-related concerns of management. Task-oriented behavior focuses on production. Its key concern is to provide structure for subordinates by defining task requirements and specifying the work agenda. Task-oriented behaviors include maintaining performance standards, assigning tasks, identifying standard procedures, enforcing deadlines, correcting performance problems, and coordinating activities.

Question 8

Born/made argument

Answer 8

The “born” argument aligns with trait theory, which says that leaders have certain traits - they are natural-born leaders. The “made” argument aligns with the behavior approaches, which says that leadership is associated with behaviors (if you behave like a leader you are a leader). The made argument implies that anyone can be made into a leader through training and development.

Question 9

Rich Arvey Study

Answer 9

Research on a sample of fraternal and identical twins found that 30-32% of the variance in role occupancy among twins could be accounted for by genetic factors. This means that roughly 70% can be developed. Leadership is a talent - some people have it more than others.

Question 10

Contingency Approaches in Leadership Theories

Answer 10

Contingency approaches state that whether a leader style or behavior is positively associated with leadership effectiveness depends on the situation. In situations requiring direction and structure, task-oriented behavior will be more effective and desired. In situations requiring more support and consideration, relations-oriented behavior will be more effective.

Question 11

The Contingency Model

Answer 11

It indicates that a manager’s leadership behavior or style (the independent variable) is related to leadership effectiveness (the outcome variable) depending on the situation (the moderator variable)

Question 12

The Contingency Model has 4 behavior styles:

Answer 12

1) Directive leadership (task-oriented)
2) Supportive Leadership (relation-oriented)
3) Achievement-Oriented
4) Participative Leadership

Question 13

Achievement-oriented Leadership

Answer 13

Focuses on building subordinates’ confidence in their ability to achieve high standards of performance through a focus on excellence and goal setting.

Question 14

Participative Leadership

Answer 14

Focuses on consulting with subordinates and taking their suggestions into account before making decisions.

Question 15

The central argument of contingency theories is that situational factors moderate the association between a manager’s leadership style and his or her effectiveness.

Answer 15

Situational variables are assessed in a variety of ways. They can be characteristics of the follower, such as follower readiness, or ability to do the task. They can be characteristics of the task, such as task structure (high or low task structure). Or they can be characteristics of the organizational structure, such as leadership position power (formal or informal authority system)

Question 16

Directive leadership

Answer 16

Directive Leadership is needed when subordinates want guidance and direction in their jobs. It helps increase role clarity, self-efficacy, effort, and performance. When the task is clear, directive-leadership will have a negative impact, as it will be seen as overly domineering - a “micromanaging” style - by subordinates.

Question 17

Supportive Leadership

Answer 17

Supportive Leadership is needed when subordinates want emotional, not task, support. Supportive leadership is beneficial for highly repetitive or unpleasant tasks. It helps reduce stress by letting employees know the organization cares and will provide help.

Question 18

Achievement-Oriented Leadership

Answer 18

This is needed for challenging tasks or when subordinates need to take initiative. It helps employees gain confidence and strive for higher standards. It increases expectations that effort will lead to desired performance.

Question 19

Participative Leadership

Answer 19

Participative leadership is best when subordinates need limited direction and support. It allows employees input. When tasks are repetitive, nonauthoritarian subordinates appreciate being involved to help break up the monotony

Question 20

Fiedler’s Leader-Match Model

Answer 20

Fiedler’s LPC (least-preferred co-worker) model suggests that a manager’s leadership style does not change. A manager has a certain style and that is the style he or she has to work with. Therefore, instead of modifying their style, managers need to match (leader-match) the situation to their style. A match can be achieved in two ways:
By selecting managers with the appropriate style to fit the situation, or by training managers to change the situation to make it fit their leadership style.

Question 21

Problems with Contingency Approaches

Answer 21

1) broad and not very informative
2) situations leaders face are complex and dynamic and each situation is unique in it’s own way
3) There is no magic toolbox we can give managers for how to deal with certain situations. Leaders need to understand the basic concepts but then be able to adapt their style to fit the needs of the particular situation.

Question 22

What led to the “doom and gloom” period in leadership research?

Answer 22

Frustrations with limitations in leadership research. The period 1970-1980 was characterized by disillusionment and criticism from scholars that leadership research had told us very little

Question 23

Charismatic Leadership

Answer 23

A special personal quality or attractiveness that enables an individual to influence others. It it is often characterized as a personal magnetism or charm. It evokes enthusiasm and commitment among followers. It has its roots in Christianity. Although charisma is often considered an individual trait, it is more adeptly described as a relational process involving a leader, followers and a situation.

Question 24

Katherine Klein and Robert House described charisma as what?

Answer 24

“a fire” produced by three elements: (1) “a spark - a leader with charismatic qualities”, (2) “flammable material” - followers who are open or susceptible to charisma, and (3) “oxygen” - an environment, such as a crisis or a situation of unrest among followers, that is conducive to charisma.

Question 25

Skills and traits of charismatic leaders

Answer 25

What most distinguishes charismatic leaders is their skill as communicators. They connect with followers on a deep and emotional level. They use metaphors and symbols to articulate their vision in ways that captivate followers and build identification. Some other traits:

• Novel and Inspiring
• Emotional appeals to values
• Expressive communication in articulating the vision
• Unconventional behavior
• Personal risk and self-sacrifice to attain the vision
• High Expectations
• Confidence and optimism

Question 26

Consequences of Charisma

Answer 26

For charisma to achieve positive outcomes, it needs to be used from a socialized charismatic power where power is used for collective rather than personal benefit. When used for personal interest it can have destructive consequences. Studies show that charisma is not beneficial for most CEOs.

Question 27

Dangers of Charisma

Answer 27

Charisma is a powerful force and can be a dangerous one. Because charismatic leaders arouse strong emotions among followers, they can produce radical behaviors, even when that is not their intention. Charismatic leaders can try to address these problems by reducing power distance.

Question 28

What is power distance?

Answer 28

Power Distance is the extent to which followers see leaders as having much higher status than them.

Question 29

Burn’s Transforming Leadership Theory

Answer 29

Burn’s approach focused on leadership from the standpoint of power, purpose, and relationships. The key to his analysis was the distinction between leaders and power wielders. According to Burns, leaders take followers’ goals, motivations and needs, and feelings into consideration and use power for good. Power wielders, on the other hand, are egocentric and Machiavellian. They use power to advance their own interests without considering followers’ needs. Whereas leaders elevate followers (and themselves) to new heights, power wielders gain power over followers in ways that cause followers to engage in behaviors they otherwise would not. In Burns’s view, power wielders are not leaders.

Question 30

Transactional leadership/Burns

Answer 30

Leaders focus on exchanging valued goods in return for something they want (economic, political, or social exchanges, such as exchange of money for goods or support for votes). The focus here is purely instrumental. There is no expectation beyond the exchange.

Question 31

Transformational Leadership/Burns

Answer 31

This is the leadership behavior Burns was most interested in learning about. Transformational leaders developed inspirational relationships with followers in which both leaders and followers were positively transformed in the process. Burns’s transforming leadership theory, the transformation is based on both leaders and followers attaining higher levels of moral purpose as they accomplished common goals. The key element of Burns’s Theory is the moral foundation upon which transformation rests. A transforming leader is one who, though initially impelled by the quest for individual recognition, ultimately advances collective purpose by being attuned to the aspirations and needs of his or her followers. In Burns’s Theory, the transformation is a moral accomplishment because its outcomes raises human conduct.

Question 32

Bass’s Leadership Theory

Answer 32

His approach is a “performance beyond expectations” approach that focuses on transformation on organizational performance. In his theory, the transformation occurs when followers are inspired to set aside their self-interest for organizational interest. In other words, they accept the purpose in the attainment of pragmatic task objectives for the good of the organization.

Question 33

Bass’s Transformational Leadership

Answer 33

Transformational leaders articulate a shared vision of the future, intellectually stimulate subordinates, provide a great deal of support to individuals, recognize individual differences and set high expectations for the work units. They increase follower’s social identity by enhancing pride in contributing to a higher purpose, and make followers feel more secure in their membership and status in the group.

This style moves the follower beyond immediate self-interests by using four types of leader behaviors:

1) Idealized Influence = similar to charismatic leadership
2) Inspirational Influence = similar to charismatic leadership
3) Intellectual stimulation
4) Individual consideration

Question 34

Idealized and Inspirational Influence

Answer 34

They are similar to charismatic leadership. They are displayed when the leader envisions a desirable future, articulates how it can be reached, sets and example to be followed sets high standards of performance, and shows determination and confidence.

Question 35

Intellectual Stimulation

Answer 35

This is displayed when the leader helps followers to become more innovative and creative

Question 36

Individualized Consideration

Answer 36

This is displayed when the leaders pay attention to the developmental needs of followers by providing support, encouragement, and coaching.

Question 37

Bass’s Transactional Leadership

Answer 37

This is based in self-interest, and use exchanges between leaders and followers to attain desired behavior and outcomes.
The four behaviors associated are:
1) Contingent rewards
2) Active Management-by-expectations
3) Passive Leadership
4) Laissez-faire leadership

Question 38

Contingent Rewards

Answer 38

Involves exchanging rewards for mutually agreed-upon goal accomplishment. Leader clarifies what the follower needs to do to be rewarded for effort.

Question 39

Active management-by-exception

Answer 39

Involves watching for deviations from rules and standards and taking corrective actions when needed.

Question 40

Passive Leadership

Answer 40

It involves intervening only if standards are not met. Leader waits for problems to arise before taking corrective action.