Chapter 14: Gender, sexuality and social reproduction

Question 1

What is gender?

Answer 1

Gender describes the social and cultural norms that constitute masculinity and femininity

Question 2

What are the three leading approaches to feminist theory in international relations?

Answer 2

Liberal feminism, Marxist feminism, and postcolonial feminism

Question 3

How does Cynthia Enloe (2014) contribute to feminist theory in international relations?

Answer 3

She exposes the gendered nature of international politics by revealing the role of gendered divisions of labor in practices such as diplomacy and international political economy.

Question 4

How does Enloe describe the methodological approach of feminist theory in IR?

Answer 4

Enloe describes it as a form of “detective work,” aimed at rendering visible the typically concealed structures and spheres in international relations.

Question 5

What does feminist theory critique in international politics according to Enloe and others?

Answer 5

Feminist theory critiques how gendered values and priorities privilege the masculine and denigrate the feminine in both theory and practice of international politics.

Question 6

How does Tickner contribute to feminist theory in international relations?

Answer 6

Tickner offers a feminist critique of political realism, particularly the principles put forward by Morgenthau, highlighting the gendered biases inherent in these theories.

Question 7

What alternative ethics of war does Ruddick propose?

Answer 7

Ruddick argues for an alternative ethics of war derived from the virtues inherent in the caring work of mothering, critiquing the masculine values reflected in just war theory.

Question 8

What recent focus areas has feminist scholarship in IR explored?

Answer 8

Recent scholarship has focused on the United Nations’ Women, Peace and Security (WPS) agenda and the development of a distinctively feminist approach to security theory.

Question 9

What is the second mode of feminist theory influenced by?

Answer 9

Marxist ideas, understanding gender as a form of class relations.

Question 10

According to Marxist feminists, what role do gendered relations of power play in global capitalism?

Answer 10

Gendered relations of power enable the unpaid domestic labor of women, which is central to upholding global politico-economic structures of production, trade, finance, and accumulation.
(Elias and Roberts, 2018).

Question 11

How do feminist theorists operating within the third mode of feminist theorizing approach international politics?

Answer 11

They take an intersectional approach, focusing on how gendered relations of power intersect with hierarchies of race, class, sexuality, and empire. Crenshaw (1989)

Question 12

What does Chandra Mohanty (1988) criticize Western feminists for?

Answer 12

Mohanty criticizes Western feminists for portraying women from developing countries in a monolithic, victimized manner, which she sees as a form of discursive colonization legitimizing neocolonial interventionism.

Question 13

How do norms of gender and sexuality operate according to Andrew Delatolla (2020)?

Answer 13

Delatolla argues that they operate as a standard of civilization, maintaining a “divided world” from the nineteenth century to the twenty-first century.

Question 14

What historical women have made contributions to feminist perspectives on international politics?

Answer 14

Thinkers such as Helena Swanwick, Anna Julia Cooper, Merze Tate, Lucy Mair, Rosa Luxemburg, and Amy Ashwood Garvey have made significant contributions, though their work has often been obscured or erased from IR’s canon. (Owens, 2018)

Question 15

What has recent IR scholarship sought to do regarding historical women’s contributions to IR?

Answer 15

Recent IR scholarship has sought to retrieve and highlight the contributions of historical women, raising questions about the IR canon as a whole. (Owens, 2021)

The exclusion of historical women from IR’s canon reflects broader issues of gender bias and inequality within academia. Addressing this exclusion is essential for promoting diversity, equity, and inclusion within the field and for fostering a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of global politics.

Question 16

Examine the intersections of race, class and gender in international politics

Answer 16

Representation and Participation: For example, marginalized groups such as women of color from low-income backgrounds may face multiple barriers to participating in international decision-making processes.

Economic Inequality: Examining how global economic structures perpetuate inequalities based on race, class, and gender. This includes analyzing patterns of exploitation, labor migration, and access to resources, which disproportionately affect marginalized communities.

Conflict and Security: Exploring how intersections of race, class, and gender influence experiences of conflict, violence, and security. For example, marginalized women and LGBTQ+ individuals may face heightened risks of violence during conflict, while also being excluded from decision-making processes related to peacebuilding and security.

Global Governance: Investigating how intersecting systems of oppression shape international institutions and policies. This includes analyzing how colonial legacies, neoliberal economic policies, and patriarchal norms intersect to maintain power imbalances and perpetuate injustice on the global stage.

Question 17

What is liberal feminism?

Answer 17

Focus: Liberal feminism emphasizes achieving gender equality through legal and institutional reforms within existing political and economic structures.
Analysis: It analyzes how gender inequalities are perpetuated by discriminatory laws, policies, and practices, and advocates for measures such as gender mainstreaming and affirmative action to address these inequalities.
Critique: Critics argue that liberal feminism tends to prioritize formal equality over challenging deeper power structures and may overlook how other forms of oppression intersect with gender, such as race and class.

Question 18

What is marxist feminism?

Answer 18

Focus: Marxist feminism views gender oppression as inherently tied to capitalist exploitation and class struggle. It emphasizes the economic dimensions of gender inequality and seeks to understand how capitalism perpetuates patriarchal norms and practices.
Analysis: It analyzes how capitalist modes of production rely on unpaid domestic labor and the exploitation of women’s labor in the workforce. Marxist feminists argue that true gender liberation requires dismantling capitalism.
Critique: Critics argue that Marxist feminism may prioritize class struggle over gender-specific issues and overlook the unique forms of oppression experienced by women, especially those at the intersections of race, class, and gender.

Question 19

What is post-colonial feminism?

Answer 19

Focus: Postcolonial feminism examines how gender intersects with colonialism, imperialism, and globalization to produce unique forms of oppression and resistance.
Analysis: It analyzes how colonial legacies and global power structures shape gender relations and identities, particularly in the Global South. Postcolonial feminists critique Western feminist narratives for their Eurocentrism and argue for a more inclusive and intersectional approach to feminist activism and scholarship.
Critique: Critics argue that postcolonial feminism may overlook intra-group differences within marginalized communities and may essentialize the experiences of women in the Global South.