Chapter 13 Flashcards
watershed
the entire area of land from which water drains into a given river
water table
the upper limit of groundwater held in an aquifer
unconfined aquifer
a water-bearing, porous layer of rock, sand, or gravel that lies atop a less-permeable substrate. The water in an unconfined aquifer is not under pressure because there is no impermeable upper layer to confine it.
confined (artesian) aquifer
a water-bearing, porous layer of rock, sand, or gravel that is trapped between an upper and lower layer of less-permeable substrate, such as clay. The water in a confined aquifer is under pressure because it is trapped between to impermeable layers.
ground water
water held in aquifers underground
surface water
water located atop Earth’s surface
floodplain
the region of land over which a river has historically wandered and periodically floods
wetland
a system in which the soil is saturated with water that generally features shallow standing water with ample vegetation. these biologically productive systems include fresh water marshes, swamps, bogs, and seasonal wetlands such as vernal pools
dam
any obstruction placed in a river of stream to block the flow of water so that water can be stored in a reservoir. dams are built to prevent floods, provide drinking water, facilitate irrigation and generate electricity
reservoir
(1) an artificial water body behind a dam that stores water for human use (2) a “pool”
flooding
the spillage of water over a river’s banks due to heavy rain or snowmelt
sinkhole
an area where the ground has given way with little warning as a result of subsidence caused by depletion of water from an aquifer
nonconsumptive use
fresh water use in which the water from a particular aquifer or surface body either is not removed or is removed only temporarily and then returned. the use of water to generate electricity in hydroelectric dams is an example
consumptive use
use of fresh water in which water is removed from a particular aquifer of surface body water and is not returned. irrigation for agriculture is an example.
desalination (desalinization)
the removal of salt from seawater
non-point source
a diffuse source of pollutants, often consisting of many small sources.
point source
a specific spot where large quantities of air pollutants or water pollutants are discharged
pollution
the release of matter or energy into the environment that causes undesirable affects for living organisms. pollution can be physical, chemical, or biological, and it can affect water, air, or soil
water pollution
the act of polluting water, or the condition of being polluted by water pollutants
septic system
a wastewater disposal method, common in rural areas, consisting of an underground tank and series of drainpipes. wastewater runs from the house to the tank, where solids precipitate out. the water proceeds downhill to a drain field of perforated pipes laid horizontally in f=gravel-filled trenches. where microbes decompose the remaining waste
primary treatment
a stage of wastewater treatment in which contaminants are physically removed. wastewater glows into tanks which sewage solids, grit, and particulate matter settle to the bottom. Greases and oils float to the surface and can be skimmed off
secondary treatment
a stage of wastewater treatment in which biological means are used to remove contaminants remaining after primary treatment. wastewater is stirred up in the presence of aerobic bacteria, which degrade organic pollutants in the water. the wastewater then passes to another settling tank, where remaining solids drift to the bottom
waste water
any water that is used in house holds, businesses industries, or public facilities and is drained or flushed down pipes, as well as the polluted runoff from streets and storm drains
continental shelf
the gently sloping underwater edge of a continent, varying in width from 100 m (330 ft) to 1300 km (800 mi), with an average slope of 1.9 m/km (10 ft/mi)
current
the flow of a liquid or gas in a certain direction
upwelling
in the ocean, the flow of cold, deep water toward the surface. Upwelling occurs in areas where surface currents diverge.
thermohaline circulation
a worldwide system of ocean currents in which warmer, fresher water moves along the surface and colder, saltier water (which is denser) moves deep beneath the surface
el Niño-southern oscillation (ENSO)
a systematic shift in atmospheric temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical pacific ocean. ENSO cycles give rise to el nino and la nina conditions
el Niño
the exceptionally strong warming of the eastern pacific ocean that occurs every 2 to 7 years and depresses local fish and bird populations by altering the marine food web in the area. Originally, the name that Spanish speaking fishermen gave to an unusually warm surface current that sometimes arrived near the pacific coast of south America around Christmas time
downwelling
in the ocean, the flow of warm surface water toward the ocean floor. Downwelling occurs where surface currents converge
ocean acidification
the process by which today’s oceans are becoming more acidic (attaining a lower pH) as a result of increased carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere. Ocean acidification occurs as ocean water absorbs CO2 from the air and forms carbonic acid. this impairs the ability of corals and other organisms to build exoskeletons of calcium carbonate, imperiling coral reefs and the many organisms that depend on them
la Niña
the exceptionally strong cooling of the surface water in the equatorial pacific ocean that occurs every 2 to 7 years and has widespread climatic consequences.
photic zone
in the ocean or a freshwater body, the well-lit top layer of water where photosynthesis occurs
mangrove
a tree with a unique type of roots that curve upwards to attain oxygen, which is lacking in the mud in which they grow, and that serves as stilts to support the tree in changing water levels. mangroves grow in tropics, costliness, and subtropics
estuary
an area where a river flows into the ocean, mixing fresh water with salt water
coral reef
a mass of calcium carbonate composed of the skeletons of tiny coral marine organisms called corals
salt marsh
flat land that is intermittently flooded by the ocean where the tide reaches inland. salt marshes occur along temperate costliness and are thickly vegetated with grasses, rushes, shrubs and other herbaceous plants
tide
the periodic rise and fall of the ocean’s height at a given location, caused by the gravitational pull by the sun and the moon
intertidal
of for relating to living along shore lines between the highest reach of the highest tide and the lowest reach of the lowest tide
great pacific garbage patch
a portion of the north pacific gyre where currents concentrate plastics and other floating debris that pose danger to marine organisms
harmful algal blooms
a population explosion of toxic algae caused by excessive nutrient concentrations
red tide
a harmful algal blooms consisting of algae that produces reddish pigments that discolor surface water
marine protected area (MPA)
an area of the ocean set aside to protect marine life from fishing pressures. an MPA may be protected from some human activities but be open to others
marine reserve
an area of ocean designated as a no fishing zone, allowing no extractive activities
troposphere
the bottommost layer of the atmosphere; it extends to 11km (7 mi) to above sea level
statosphere
the layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere and below the mesosphere; it extends from 11km (7 mi) to 50 km (31 mi) above sea level
ozone layer
a portion of the stratosphere, roughly 17 - 30 km (10 - 19 mi) above sea level, that contains most of the ozone in the atmosphere
atmosphere pressure
the weight per unit area produced by a column of air
relative humidity
the ratio of water vapor given volume of air to the maximum amount the air could contain, for a given temperature.
convective circulation
a circular current (of air, water, magma, ect.) driven by temperature differences in the atmosphere, warm air that rises into the regions of lower atmosphere pressure, where it expands and cools and them descends and becomes denser, replacing warm air that is rising. the air picks up heat and moisture near ground level and prepared to rise again. continuing the process
weather
the local physical properties of the troposphere, such as temperature, pressure, pressure,humidity, cloudiness, and wind, over relatively short time periods
climate
the pattern of atmospheric conditions found across long geographic regions over long periods of time
front
the boundary between air masses that differ in temperature and moisture (and therefore density)
warm front
the boundary where a mass of warm air displaces a mass of colder air
cold front
the boundary where a mass of cold air displaces a mass of warmer air
high pressure system
an air mass with elevated atmospheric pressure, containing air that descends, typically bringing fair weather
low-pressure system
an air mass in which air moves towards the low atmospheric pressure at the center of the system and spirals upward, typically bringing clouds and precipitation
temperature inversion (thermal inversion)
a departure from the normal temperature distribution in the atmosphere, in which a packet of relatively cold air occurs near ground. with warmer air above it. the cold air, denser than the air above, traps pollutants near the ground and can thereby cause a build up of smog
inversion layer
in a temperature inversion, the band of air in which temperature rises with altitude (instead of falling with altitude, as temperature does normally)
Hadley cell
one of a pair of cells of convective circulation between the equator and 30 degrees north and south latitude that influence global climate patterns
polar cell
one of a pair of cells of convective circulation between the poles and 60 degrees north and south latitude that influence global climate patterns
ferrel cell
one of a pair of cells of convective circulation between the 30 degrees and 60 degrees north and south latitude that influence global climate change
Coriolis effect
the apparent deflection of north-south air currents to a partly east-west direction. caused by the faster spin of the regions near the equator than of the regions near the poles as a result of Earth’s rotation
hurricane
a cyclonic storm that forms over the ocean but can do damage upon arriving on land. a type of cyclonic or typhoon that usually forms over the atlantic sea ocean
tornado
a cyclonic storm in which funnel clouds pick up soil and objects, threatening life and causing great damage to property
air pollution
the act of polluting the air, or the condition of being polluted by air pollutants
air pollutants
gases and particulate material added to the atmosphere that can affect climate or harm people or other organisms
outdoor (ambient) air pollution
air pollution that occurs outdoors
aerosals
very fine liquid droplets or solid particles aloft in the atmosphere
primary pollutant
a hazardous substance, such as soot or carbon monoxide, that is emitted into the troposphere in a form that is directly harmful
secondary pollutant
a hazardous substance produced through the reaction of substances added to the atmosphere with chemicals normally found in the atmosphere
residence time
(1) in a biogeochemical cycle, the amount of time a nutrient remains in a given pool or reservoir before moving to another (2) in the atmosphere, the amount of time a gas molecule or pollutant remains aloft
clean air act of 1970
revision of prior US legislation to control air pollution that set stricter standards for air quality, imposed limits for emissions from new stationary and malice sources, provided new funds for pollution control research, and enabled citizens to sue parties violating the standards
clean air act of 1990
US legislation that strengthened regulations pertaining to air quality standards, auto emissions, toxic air pollution, acid deposition, and depletion of the ozone layer, while also introducing market based incentives to reduce pollution
carbon monoxide (CO)
a colorless, odorless gas produced primarily by the incomplete combustion of fuel
sulfur dioxide (SO2)
a colorless gas that can result from the combustion of fuel. in the atmosphere, it may rect to form sulfur trioxide (SO3) and sulfuric acid, which may return to the earth in acid deposition
lead
a heavy metal that may be ingested through water or paint, or that may enter the atmosphere as a particulate pollutant through combustion of leaded gasoline or other processes. atmospheric lead deposited on land and water can enter the food chain, accumulate within body tissues, and cause lead poisoning in animals and in humans. an EPA criteria pollutant
volatile organic compound (VOC)
one of a large group of potentially harmful organic chemicals used in industrial processes. one of the six major pollutants whose emissions are monitored by the EPA and state agencies
particulate matter
solid or liquid particles small enough to be suspended in the atmosphere and able to damage respiratory tissues when inhaled. includes primary pollutants such a dust or soot as well as secondary pollutants such as sulfates and nitrates. an EPA criteria pollutant
nitrogen oxide (NOx)
one of a family of compounds that includes nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen oxide (NO2)
scrubber
technology to chemically treat gases produced in combustion in order to reduce smoke stack emissions. these devices typically remove hazardous components and neutralize acidic gases, such as sulfur dioxide and hydrochloric acid, turning them into water and salt
industrial smog
“gray-air” smog caused by the incomplete combustion of coal or oil when burned
ozone-depleting substances
airborne chemicals, such as halocarbons, that destroy the ozone layer in the stratosphere
acid deposition
the settling of acidic or acid forming pollutants from the atmosphere onto Earth’s surface, this may take place by precipitation, fog, gases, or deposition of dry particles
acid rain
acid deposition that takes place through rain
atmospheric deposition
the wet or dry deposition on land of a wide variety of pollutants, including mercury, nitrates, organochlorines, and others. acid deposition is one type of atmospheric deposition
indoor air pollution
air pollution that occurs indoors
nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
a foul smelling reddish brown gas that contributes to smog and acid deposition. it results when atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen react at high temperatures created by combustion engines. an EPA criteria pollutant
tropospheric ozone
ozone that occurs in the troposphere, where it is a secondary pollutant created by the interaction of sunlight, heat, nitrogen oxides, and volatile carbon-containing chemicals. a major component of smog, it can injure living tissues and cause respiratory problems. an EPA criteria pollutant
toxic air pollutant
air pollutant that is known to cause cancer, reproductive defects, or neurological development, immune system, or respiratory problems in humans, and or cause substantial ecological harm by affecting the health of nonhuman animals and plants. the clean air act of 1990 identifies 188 toxic air pollutants, ranging from the heavy metal mercury to VOCs such as benzene and methylene chloride
halocarbon
a class of human-made chemical compounds derived from simple hydro-carbons in which hydrogen atoms are replaced by halogen atoms such as bromine, fluorine, and chlorine. many halocarbons are ozone depleting substances and or greenhouse gases
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
a type of halocarbon consisting of only of carbon, hydrogen, fluorine, and chlorine. CFCs were used as refrigerants, fire extinguishers, propellants for aerosals spray cans, cleaners for electronics, and for making polystyrene foam. they were phased out under the Montreal protocol because they are ozone depleting substances that destroy stratospheric ozone
ozone hole
term popularly used to describe the thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer that occurs over Antartica each year, as a result of CFCs and other 03 depleting substances
Montreal protocol
international treaty ratified in 1987 in which 180 (now 196) signatory nations agreed to restrict production of CFCs in order to halt stratospheric 03 depletion. this was a protocol of the Vienna convention for the protection of the ozone layer. the Montreal protocol is widely considered the most successful effort to date in addressing a global environmental problem
global climate change
systematic change in aspects of Earth’s climate, such as temperature, precipitation, and storm intensity, generally refers today to the global warming trend in global temperatures and the many associated with climate change
global warming
an increase in Earth’s average surface temperature the term is most frequently used in reference to the pronounced global warming trend of recent years and decades. global warming is one aspect of global climate change and in turn drivers other components of climate change
greenhouse gases
a gas that absorbs infrared radiation released by Earth’s surface and then warms the surface and troposphere by emitting energy, thus giving rise to the greenhouse effect. greenhouse gases include CO2, water vapor, O3, N2O, halocarbons, and methane (CH4)
greenhouse effect
the warming of Earth’s surface and atmosphere (especially troposphere), caused by the energy emitted by greenhouse gases
radiative farling
the amount of change in thermal energy that a factor (such as greenhouse gas or an aerosol) cause in influencing Earth’s temperature. positive forcing warms Earth’s surface, where as negative forcing cools it
paleoclimate
climate in the geological past
proxy indicator
a surface of indirect evidence that serves as a proxy, or substitute, for direct measurement that sheds light on past climate. examples include data from ice cores, sediment cores, tree rings, packrat middens, and coral reefs
climate model
a computer program that combines what is known about weather patterns, atmospheric circulation, atmospheric-ocean interactions, and feedback mechanisms, in order to simulate climate processes
radiative focing
the amount of change in thermal energy that a factor (such as a greenhouse gas or an aerosol) causes in inlfuencing Earth’s temperature. positive forcing warms Earth’s surface whereas negative forcing cools Earth’s surface
intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC)
an international panel of climate scientists and government officials estavlidhed in 1988 by the UN Environmental program and the world meteorological organization. the IPCC’s mission is to assess and sythesize scientific research on global climate change and to offer guidence to the world’s policy makers, primarily through periodic published reports
Milankovitch cycle
one of three types of variations on Earth’s rotation and orbit around the sun that result in slight changes in the relative amount of solar radiation reaching Earth’s surface at different latitudes. as the cycles proceed, they change the way solar radiation is distributed over Earth’s surface and contribute to changes in atmospheric heating and circulation that have triggered glaciations and other climate changes
ocean acidification
the process by which today’s oceans are becoming more acidic as a result of increased CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere. ocean acidification occurs as ocean water absorbs (O2 from the air and forms carbonic acid. this impairs the ability of corals and other organisms to build exoskeletons of calcium carbonate, imperiling coral reefs and the many organisms that depend on them
mitigation
the pursuit of strategies to lessen the severity of climate change, notability by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases
adaptation
the pursuit of strategies to protect ourselves from the impact of climate change
carbon capture
technologies or approaches that remove CO2 from power plant or other emissions, in an effort to mitigate global climate change. we are still a long way from developing adequate technology and secure storage space to accomplish this also called carbon storage
cap-and-trade
a permit trading system
U.N. framework convention on climate change
an international treaty signed in 1992 outlining a plan to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. gave rise to the Kyoto protocol
Kyoto protocol
an international agreement drafted in 1997 that called for reducing, by 2012, 6 greenhouse gases to levels lower than their levels in 1990. it has been extended to 2020 until a replacement treaty can be reached
fee-and-dividend
a program of carbon taxes in which proceeds from the taxes are paid to consumers as a tax refund or “dividend”. this strategy seeks to prevent consumers from losing money if polluters pass their costs along to them
carbon tax
a fee changed to entities that pollute by emitting CO2. a carbon tax gives polluters a financial incentive to reduce pollution and is thus foreseen as a way to address global climate change
carbon offsets
a voluntary payment to another entity intended to enable that entity to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions that one is unable or unwilling to reduce oneself. the payment thus offsets one’s own emissions.
carbon-neutrality
the state in which an individual, business, or institution emits no net carbon to the atmosphere. this may be achieved by reducing carbon emissions and or employing carbon offsets to offset emissions
geoengineering
any of a suite of proposed efforts to cool Earth’s climate by removing CO2 from the atmosphere or reflecting sunlight away from Earth’s surface. such ideas are controversial and are not nearly ready to implement
carbon footprint
the cumulative amount of carbon, or CO2, that a person or institution emits and is indirectly responsible for emitting, into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change
