chapter 12: socia development Flashcards
social development
the changing nature of our relationship with others over the course of life
Erik Erikson’s theory about stages of life
every stage of life is associated with a particular crisis or a problem to be resolved through interactions with other people
what is the primary problem in infancy according to erikson
developing a sense of trust, a secure sense that other people, or certain people can be relied upon for care and help
what did Bowlby focus on for the period of infancy
infant’s need for care and on the psychological consequences od the manner in which care is provided
what perspective did bowlby give on the issue of early child development
evolutionary perspective - the emotional bond between the infant and adult caregiver (especially the mother) is promoted by a set of instinctive tendencies in both parents (infant’s crying to signal discomfort and the adult’s distress + infant smiling and cooing when comforted and the adult’s pleasure)
evidence that infants aren’t passively dependent
by the time babies are born, they already prefer the voices of their own mothers + shortly after also prefer the smell and sight of mothers
by what age do newborns express emotions and respond to them in others
by 3 months
who and when began to use the term attachment to refer to emotional bonds
Bowlby in the 1950s
Harlow’s experiment
systematic program of research with rhesus monkeys - two surrogate mothers (wire and fur) - regardless of which had the nipple, all monkeys treated the cloth one as their mother
how did harlow conclude that the baby monkeys preferred the cloth mother
clung to it for much of the day, ran to it when frightened by a strange object, were braver in exploring an unfamiliar room when the cloth surrogate was present, pressed the lever repeatedly to look at it through a winoe in preference to other objects
bowlby’s experiment similar to harlow’s
attachment behaviors in infants from 8 months to 3 years - children showed distress when their mothers left them (especially in a new environment), showed pleasure when reunited, showed distress when approached by a stranger until reassured by mother, more likely to explore when the mother is there
evolutionary explanation of attachment
it’s a universal human phenomenon, infants are potentially in danger when out of sight of caregivers, especially in a new environment
when does the attachment strengthen and why
around 6-8 months when infants begin to move on their own - a crawling infant can get into more trouble than an immobile one
social referencing
looking to the caregiver for cues about danger or safety as they explore
who developed the strange situations test
mary ainsworth
which age is the strange situations test done with
infants 12-18 months of age
steps of the strange situations test
mother and infant enter a room, the child plays w the mother and is also allowed to play freely
series of 3 minute periods of activity: unfamiliar adult comes in talks to the mother and interacts with the infant, the mother goes out and leaves baby in the room, the mother returns
what behavior is the most important when evaluating the strange situations test
those behaviors that the baby exhibits when reunited w mother
what are the types of attachments
secure, insecure-resistant, insecure-avoidant, disorganized/disoriented
characteristics of the secure attachment
60% of people - infants explore while in the room with their mothers, become upset when she leaves, when she comes back the baby will go to her and greet her warmly, the mother is able to soothe the child sometimes it plays with the strwnger in the end
insecure-resistant attachment
10% - anxious even with their mothers, don’t explore a lot and wary of the stranger, very distressed when the mother leaves but ambivalent or angry when she returns, stay near the mother when she returns but seem to resent her departure and resist contact
insecure-avoidant attachment
15% - little distress when the mother leaves, avoid contact with her when she returns, usually no wariness of the stranger but might avoid them we much as mother
disorganized attachment
15% - no coherent strategy for dealing with stress of departure and reunion, seek to be close to their mothers in erratic ways (strong approach followed by strong avoidance), may look dazed upon reunion, freeze in tbe middle of movement, approach her backwards, wait an inordinate amount of time before approaching
what does the baby get securely attached + what is it called
when the mothers procide regular contact comfort, respind promptly and helpfully to the infant’s signals of distress, interact with the infant in an emotionally synchronous manner - sensitive care
what is the security of the attachment positively correlated with
ratings of mother’s sensitive care
how was sensitive care assessed
home visits early in infancy and attachment through the strange situation tests
what can secure attachment lead to in adulthood
confidence, being better at solving problems, emotional health, being more sociable
training program experiment - attachment
mothers w irritable babies (unusually fussy, easily angerer, difficult to comfort) participated in a 3-month training program, beginning when infants are 6 months old, designed to help mothers perceive and respond to baby’s signals
when 12 months old - strange situation test - 62% vs 22%
relationship between genes and attachment
5-HTTLLPR - can be in a short or in a long form (how the brain uses serotonin) - l allele resilts in greater uptaje of serotonin - children who are homozygous for the l allele are less affected by negative environmental experience
attachment genes experiment
parents assessed for sensitive care when infants were 7 months old and then strange situation test when the infants were 15 months old
28 of the 88 infants had the ll genotype - attachment security increased significantly and sharply with increased maternal sensitivity for the ss/sl group but not the ll group
how is the attachment in !Kung San children
the mother carries the infant at all times (the infants sees everything the mother sees, can breastfeed at will), when not held by the mother the infant is passed around among others
attachment in the efe society
infants are in physical contact with their mother about half the day, during the rest of the day, they’re in direct contact with other caregivers - also breastfeed from other women
at around 8-12 months, efe infants begin to show increased preferences for their own mothers
how are !kung children when they grow up
extraordinarily cooperative and brave, children older than 4 explored more and sought their mother less in a novel environment than did their British counterparts
record in father involvement
Aka of central Africa - fathers hold their infants an average of 20% of the time during the day + get up at night
what are the thee Erikson’s successive stages
development of autonomy (self control), initiative (willingness to initiate actions), industry (competence in completing tasks)
prosocial behavior
voluntary behavior intended to benefit other people
proof that infants are predisposed to be social
infants prefer to look at faces and seem to have a special ability to process and make sense of faces, view others as intentional agents, they easily form attachments with multiple people early in life
how do babies comfort
as young as 2 or 3 days old, reflexively cry and show other signs of distress in response to another baby crying
what did hoffman sat about comforting in babies
the tendency to feel discomfort in response to another’s expressed discomfort is a foundation for the development of empathy
when do babies stop crying immediately when another is distressed
by about 6 months of age - turn toward the distressed individual, look sad, whimper
egocentric empathy
until about 15 months of age - the distressed child seeks comrort for themselves rather than for the other distressed person
comforting by second year
succeed at comforting - not only feel bad about another’s discomfort, but also must understand enough sbout the other person’s mind to know what will provide comfort
when does give and take start
near the end of the first year
give and take experiment
nearly every one of more than 100 infants ages 12 to 18 months spontaneously gave toys to an adult (also unfamiliar researchers) during brief sessions in a lab room + !Kung
when does helping behavior in children start
between 18 and 30 months - joining their mothers in household tasks without being asked
helping behavior experiment
researchers sat in front of children between 18 and 24 months and performed taks such as reaching for a marker or stacking books - occasionally a mishap would happen and they would drop it - chidren more likely to retrieve a fallen object if it seemed like it was an accident
empathy
the ability to perceive and feel emotions that another person is feeling
what were most disuptes between pairs of 21-month-old children about
84% involved toys
sharing experiment
5- to 14-year-old chidren had earned 5 candy bars and were told they could share some with “poor children” - 60% of 5 and 6 year olds shared, 92% of 7 and 8 year olds and 100% of older kids
food sharing experiment
18 and 25 month old toddlers took part in a food sharing task with an adult - children could pull a lever to deliver a treat for themselves and for an adult
when adults said “i like crackers. i want a cracker” - 70% of older children gave crackers
collaboration sharing tadk
3 year old children shown how to operate an apparatus in which two people must pull on ropes to get a prize
children cooperated 70% of the time, shared reward equally 80% of the time
at what age do children realize they’re getting an unfair deal
3 years old
how is young children’s fair distribution of resources related to the theory of mind
preschool children who passed false-belief tasks were more likely to make a fair distribution of resources between themselves and a peer
emulation
understanding the goal the model has in mind, don’t restrict themselves to using the same behaviors as the model did to achieve it
overimulation
faithfully repeating the actuons of a model even if many of these are irrelevant and if there’s a more efficient way to solve a problem
when does emulation stop
around the 3rd birthday
Lyons experiment
showed preschool children how to open a transparent container to get a toy that was inside
some of the actions of the morel were clearly relevant to opening a containers while others are irrelevant
most children copied both even when they were able to say which actions are “silly”
experiment about emulation - accidental
3, 4, and 5 year old children in one study were less apt to copy irrelevant actions in attempting to get the toy out when the adult morel made it clear movements were accidental
explanation for overimulation
older children believe that models are trustworthy
is overimulation present in Kalahari Bushman children and if yes, when
yes in 2- to 6-year-olds
why do children copy irrelevant actions too
they might believe all of the actions are important for the “bigger overarching action sequence”
puppet experiment
3- to 5-year-old children corrected a puppet that omitted unnecessary actions previously performed by an adult
panpipes experiment - showing the child
one preschool was shown how to work the panpies using a stick (the lift method, the poke method, the push lift method) - served as a model for other children, all 20 learned
when just gave them panpipes - only 3/16 succeeded
how do children teach one another
not deliberately, one child performs some task while their classmates watch
but - many children talked about what they were doing
panpipes experiment 2
taught one child in each of 2 classrooms either the lift or the poke method - 83% of children who tried to operate them were successful + after a few days, several children learned additional ways
parenting styles
ways. in which parents interact with the children on the way to adulthood
two dimensions of parenting styles
the degree of warmth (being loving and attentive to children and their needs) and the degree of control a parent attempts to exert over a child’s behavior
4 types of parenting styles
authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, uninvolved
authoritarian parenting style
strongly value obedience for its own sake, high degree of power assertion to control children (low warmth, high control)
authoritative
wish that their children learn and abide by basic principles of right and wrong (high warmth, high control)
permissive parents
most tolerant of their children’s disruptive actions, least likely to discipline, the responses to misbehavior are manifestations of their own frustration not attempts at correction (high warmth, low control)
uninvolved (neglectful) parents
added later - disengaged from their children, emotionally cold, demand little of their children (low warmth, low control)
what qualities to children of authoritative parents have
friendlier, happier, more cooperative, less likely to disrupt others’ activities
qualities of children with authoritarian parents
perform poorly in school, low self-esteem, more apt to be rejected by their school peers
qualities of children with permissive parents
impulsive, aggressive, often acting out of control
qualities of children with uninvolved parents
fare the worst, in adolescence show problem behaviors (sexual promiscuity, antisocial behavior, drug use, internalizing problems such as depression and social withdrawal)
alternative explanations other than the causal explanation for parenting styles
some children are temperamentally less cooperative and more disruptive for genetic reasons (in a study, it has been shown that children with different temperaments do elicit different disciplinary styles from their parents), children’s behavior and style of discipline interact with each other
parenting styles experiment
divorced mothers of 6- to 8-year-old sons were assigned to a training condition (how to use firm but kind discipline), a year later they had better relationships with their mothers, rate themselves as happier, were rated by teachers as friendlier and more cooperative
3 years later - less delinquent behaviors
how is the play of young humans similar to that of other young mammals
it serves many of the same functions: chase games (physical stamina, agility, development of strategies to avoid getting caught), play nurturing and play fighting
what do children learn through play
become good at making things with their hands through constructive play, become skilled with language through word play, exercise their imagination and planning abilities through social fantasy play
how does children’s play depend on culture
in cultures where children can observe the sustenance activities of adults, they focus play on those activities (boys in hunter-gatherer cultures catch butterflies)
study of two Mexican villages - children’s play
the two villages are very similar (boys made toy plows, girls made pretend tortillas), but one village prided themselves on peace and other on violence (children saw their parents fight physically, heard of fights or murders out of sexual jealousy, victims of beatings by parents): study of 3- and 8-year-olds, children in the more violent village engaged in twice as much serious fighting (skill to be practiced)
example of the influence children’s play can have on culture
the computer revolution - children first to adapt
Piaget’s “Moral Judgement of the Child”
unsupervised play with peers is crucial for moral development - adults use their power to settle disputes, but when they’re not present children argue on their disagreement
what did Kruger say about moral development
children showed greater advances in moral reasoning when they discussed social dilemmas with their peers than parents
what did vigotsky say about play
through play, children learn how to control their own impulses and to abide by socially agreed-upon rules and roles
play is not free and spontaneous, governed by rules - children enter freely into it, lose freedom
what evidence supports what vigotsky said about play
children who break the rules are reminded by others of what they’re supposed to do + positive correlation between the amount of social fantasy play and ratings of their social competence and self-control
under which conditions did biological underpinnings of human play evolve
under conditions in which age-mixed play predominated - hunter-gatherer communities are small, a child rarely has more than 1/2 playmates who’re within 1 year of their age
benefits of age-mixed play
it’s less competitive (older children have nothing to prove, younger children don’t stand a chance), younger children acquire more advanced interests and skills, oder kids develop skills at nurturing and consolidate their knowledge by helping younger kids
how are newborn boys different from newborn girls
more irritable, less responsive to caregivers’ voiced and faces
gender difference when 6 months old
boys squirm more, show more facial expressions of anger when confined in an infant seat, girls show more facial expressions of interest and less fussing than do boys when interacting with their mothers
gender difference at 13-15 months
girls more likely to comply with their mothers’ requests
gender difference by 17 months
boys show much more physical aggression
areas of sex differences
physical and mental health, physical development, cognitive development, socioemotional development
how are parents with babies (gender)
more gentle with girls, more likely to talk to girls and to jostle boys - may reflect their sensitivity and responsiveness to actual difference in behaviors but not really < 3
how do parents treat girls/boys experiment
mothers interacted more closely with, talked in a more conservational manner to, gave fewer direct commands to their infant daughters than sons even though researchers saw no difference in behavior
differently dressed baby experiment
mothers asked to hold a 6-month-old baby, when dressed as a girl - talked to it more, when dressed as a boy- more direct gazed unaccompanied by talking
college students + baby gender differences
college students quicker to call for help for a crying infant if they thought it’s a girl
gender problem solving
mothers of 2–year-old daughters helped their toddlers in problem-solving tasks more than mothers of boys - greater expectations of self-reliance for boys
science museum experiment
parents far more likely to explain something about the workings of exhibits to their sons - occurred regardless of age and without proof that sons were more interested
what is gender identity
recognition of oneself as one gender or the other and the fact that they’ll always stay that gender
by what age do children have their gender identities
4 or 5 - also aware of stereotypes
proof that children of all cultures seem to become concerned about projecting themselves as clearly male/female
attend more closely to people of their own gender and model their behavior, when required to do a chore that they regard as gender-inappropriate do it in a clearly different style (boys and fetching water)
why did tendency toward gender identity evolve
as an active assertion of one’s sex as well as means of acquiring culture-specific gender roles - announcing that they’re on their way to becoming sexually viable
children overgeneralize gender differences experiment
when preschoolers told that a particular boy/girl likes a certain sofa/chair, generalize that to all boys/girls
at what age to children start preferring same sex-play and when is the peak
prefer it at 3 years old, peak between 8 and 11
“the world of boys”
large, hierarchically organized groups in which individuals or coalitions attempt to prove their superiority through competitive games, teasing and boasting (king of the hill”
“the world of girls”
smaller, more intimate groups, cooperative forms of play predominate and competition is more subtle (jump rope)
what reduces the difference in competitiveness between boys’ and girls’ play
age-mixed play
adolescence in traditional societies
adult roles are clearly defined and learned through the child’s direct involvement with the adult world - transition coincides with physical changes near the end of puberty
average age for first marriage in the US
29 for men, 27 for women - legal age of marriage from 13 to 21
emerging adulthood
from about 18 years old to the mid 20s, precedes one’s settling into routines of career or family
why are younger people taking longer to establish their own families
need for extended schooling
what did Erikson say about adolescence
stage of the idenitity crisis, the goal of which is to give up one’s childhood identity, establish a new one (sense of purpose, career orientation, set of values)
do other developmental psychologists agree with Erickson
no < 3
does adolescence include that much rebellion
no, most adolescents admire their parents, accept their religious and political convictions and claim to be at peace with them
what is the adolescent rebellion aimed at
some of the immediate controls that parents hold over the child’s behavior
what is increased conflict with parents linked with + when
physical changes of puberty, not chronological age - by age 16 most teenagers have achieved balance
emotional support by age
4th graders - parents were most frequent providers of emotional support, for 7th graders it’s equal, for 10th graders it’s mostly friends
when does the tendency to conform peak
10 to 14
how are teenagers in the same friend groups
more similar to one another regarding risky behavior than others - people tend to choose friends with similar behaviors + over time friends do become more similar to one another
peers in west vs east
west - negative influence of peers, but adolescents describe positive peer pressure
Chinese parents/educators - positive peer pressure - high value on academic achievenement
west reckless behavior
rates of theft, assault, murder, reckless driving, unprotected sex, illicit drug use, general disturbing of the peace peak between 15 and 25
myth of invulnerability
false sense that they’re protected from the mishaps and disease that can happen to other people
why are young people reckless
myth of invulnerability, sensation seeking, heightened irritability/aggressiveness, immature inhibitory control centers (prefrontal lobes)
moffitt theory
high rates of delinquency are a side effect of the early onset of puberty and delayed acceptance into adult society - young people past puberty are motivated to enter the adult world in whatever way available
Harris theory
concern bot with acceptance from adult but their own peers - segregation reduces the chance that adolescents can find safe, legitimate ways to behave as adults
moffitt and Harris agree
our culture’s segregation of adolescents from adult society contributes to risky behaviors
what didn’t moffitt include in her theory
risky behaviors that are not adult-like
cognitive control network
involved in planning and regulating behavior and located in the frontal lobes
socioemotional network
located in the limit system
steinberg theory
adolescent risk taking is a competition between the cognitive-control network and the socioemotional network
avoiding crashes experiments
adolescents (13 to 16), young adults (19) and adults (average age 37) - equally able to avoid crashes in a video simulation when driving alone - the number of crashes the same for adults when friends there, a bit greater for young adults, much greater for adolescents (reward related areas much more active when peers there)
vehicular deaths for adolescents
for 16 and 17 year olds - more than doubles when they’re 3 or more passengers in the car
what didn’t moffitt and Harris address
why is risky behavior more prevalent in young males and why do they occur in cultures that don’t segregate adults from adolescents
the young male syndrome
young women report that they’re sexually attracted to men who succeed in risky, adventurous activities - high proportion of violence in young men triggered by signs of disrespect or challenges to status
what kind of young men are less likely to participate in risky behaviors
those who see safer paths to high status (college, wealth, job)
violence in females
also peaks in adolescence but the peak is much smaller - when they fight physically it’s in response to gossip or insults about their alleged sexual activities (could tarnish standing with men)
when and who did most research on moral development
1970s - 1980s Kohlbert
what did kohlbert do
assessed moral reasoning by posing hypothetical dilemmas to people and asking them how they believed the protagonist should act and why (more important)
the sequence of moral development
(1)thoughts of one self alone (an action bad if results in punishment - he’ll get in trouble if he lets his wife die), 2other people directly involved (his wife is waiting when he gets out of jail), 3. others who will hear about it (his family will be mad), 4. society at large (to maintain social order, each person should be duty bound), 5.universal principles that concern all of humankind (ethical principles about laws)
what did Kohlberg say about stages
they represent a true developmental progression, to reach any given stage, a person must pass through previous ones
in which moral stage is most people
many stop at 2 or 3, few go beyond 4
is moral reasoning the same as moral action
ability to think abstractly about moral issue doesn’t help account for the idealism and moral commitment of youth
moral development in adolescents
those who exhibited the highest levels of moral reasoning were also most likely to help others, volunteer to work for social causes, refrain from taking part in actions that harm others
experiment 10th graders’ discussions with partners
more difficult than their discussions with a close same-sex friend or mother - more negativity, more failure in communication
why is teenage sex associated with delinquency
without adult advice, without protection against pregnancy and STIs
typical pattern of sexual behavior in adolescents
earliest feelings of sexual attraction between 10 and 12 + a year later followed by first sexual fantasies and masturbation
how many percent of people had sex before 19
70%
how is the development of sexual feelings for sexual minorities
similar, many children become aware when they’re 8-10, identify as a sexual minority at about 15, come out between 17 and 19
youth STDs in the US
15- to 24-year-olds only about a quarter of sexually experienced people in the US, half of new STD cases
how many girls between 14 and 19 had a STD in the US
3.2 million infected (26%), 40% for sexually active girls
teenage pregnancy in the US
7% become pregnant every year, quarter aborted + 12% in 1990, 3% in 2013
why did teenage pregnancies decline
sharp increase in use of condoms and other birth control methods, increased sex education in schools, parents’ greater willingness to discuss sex
double standards for sex
boys encouraged in their sexual adventures, more likely to feel proud of them - say they’re eager to have sex for pleasure, girls more often equate sex with love
did women want to have sex
the younger a girl was when she had sex, the less likely she was to have wanted it
sex and Trivers
young men are more eager to have sex without long-term commitment - not the ones who can get pregnant (a man can gain much and lose little)
environment affects strategy in sex
the presence of a caring father leads girls to grow up assuming that man are potentially trustworthy, boys grow up assuming that they will be such providers
adolescents raised by a mother alone more promiscuous experiment
teenage girls who were members of the same community playground group, similar to one another in socioeconomic class were observed for their degree of flirtatiousness - those raised by mothers much more likely + more likely to become sexually active earlier
girls raised in father-absent homes example
tend to go through puberty earlier - when the father leaves the family, the younger sisters reached menarche at an earlier age
how did freud define emotional maturity
capacity to love and to work
similarities between romantic love and attachment that infants develop with parents
close physical contact, caressing, gazing into each other’s eyes + sense of fusion with the other, feeling of exclusivity
how is attachment that adults form with partners classified
secure (comfort), anxious (excessive worry about love or lack of it from the partner), avoidant (little expression of intimacy or ambivalence about commitment)
explanations for continuity between people’s descriptions of their adult attachments and recollections of childhood relationships with parents
tendency for adult experiences to color the person’s memories of childhood or people form mental models of close relationships based on their early experiences with primary caregivers and carry them into adulthood
characteristics of good marriages
on questionnaires say that they like each others, think of themselves as friends and confidants, use the term we more than I, tend to value their interdependence, talk about their individual commitment to the marriage, willingness to go more than halfway to carry the relationship through difficult times
how do happily married couples argue
as often as unhappily married couples, but more constructively (genuinely listen to each other, focus on solving the problem rather than winning, show respect rather than concept, refrain from bringing up past hurt or grievances, intersperse arguments with positive comments and humor
sensitivity to the unstated feelings and needs in marriages
in unhappy, only the wife does that - wives typically feel more unhappy and manifest more physiological distress than partners + women on average better than men at attending to and understanding others’ unspoken emotions and needs
based on what can gotten predict marriage success
fondness and admiration, “we-ness” vs “me-ness”, love maps (degree to which the couple describes the history of relationship in detail with positive vs negative energy), purpose and meaning (shared goals and aspirations), satisfaction instead of disappointment
risk factors for marriage
money problems, divorced parents, personality (those who react defensively to problems and disappointment), marrying somebody from a different religion, marrying very young, getting married after knowing each other for a short time, unrealistic beliefs about marriage, living together before marriage, being divorced + having children before
how can relationship patterns be changed for the better
using a positive style of talking and resolving arguments, making an effort to communicate when you disagree, learning to handle disagreements as a team, being honest with yourself and partner
occupational self direction
people most often enjoy work if it’s complex rather than simple, varied rather than routine, not closely supervised by somebody else
do people enjoy jobs such as entrepreneurship
enjoy it, high demands but less stressful
example for occupation self direction
workers who moved into jobs that were high in self-direction from jobs that were low in quality changed psychologically (become more intellectually flexible, began to value self-direction more, less authoritarian with children)
children of workers in jobs with high self-direction
more self-directed and less conforming - in settings where people’s living depends on their own decision making, it makes more sense to raise children to question authority, think independently
wives enjoy their out-of-home work more than at-home-work and opposite is true
55 working class and middle class married parents to wear pagers - when they beeped, fill out forms to describe their activity and emotional state prior to the beep
overall, didn’t differ, but wives rated themselves happier at work and husbands rated themselves happier at home (men didn’t really consider housework a responsibility, but women did)
paradox of aging
objectively, life looks worse in old age, but it feels better
socioemotional selectivity theory
explains why older adults commonly maintain or increase their satisfaction with life despite losses - as people grow older, become more concerned with enjoying the present + young are motivated to explore new pathways and meet new people (new skills, information, social contact, prestige that might be useful in the future) - the older a person is, the less sense it makes to sacrifice present comforts and pleasures for future gain
relationships in old age
long-married couples grow closer, husbands and wives become more interested in enjoying each other, satisfaction with marriage becomes greater, older adults show less anger (better at preserving valued relationships), ties with children grandchildren and long-term friends grow stronger and more valued with age, broader social networks become less valued
are similar changes observed in old people and younger people whose life expectancy is shortened
yes
work in old age
enjoy their work more, less concerned with impressing others, more concerned with the day-to-day work itself and the social relationships associated
better memory for positive in old people experiment
young adults (18-29), middle-aged adults (41-53) and old adults (65-80) shown pictures of positive scenes, negative scenes and neutral scenes
older people recalled fewer of the scenes, but the decline in memory sharper for negative scenes
when does the fear of death peak
in a person’s fifties - begin to see some peers dying
old people have less fear of death, more likely to accept it as inevitable, seems less unfair than it did
5 stages of grief + who
Kubler-Ross: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
another theory about death
preparation for death consists of reviewing one’s life and trying to make sense of it
