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Biology 30 > Chapter 11.1 > Flashcards

Chapter 11.1 Flashcards

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1
Q

nervous system

A

in animals, system made up of cells and organs that let an animal detect changes and respond to them; made up of the brain and spinal chord, as well as the nerves that emerge from them and connect them to the rest of the body

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2
Q

Central nervous System

A

Network of nerves that includes the brain and spinal chord
Function: integrates and processes information sent by the nerves

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3
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

network of nerves that carry sensory messages to the CNS and send information from the CNS to the muscles and glands; consists of the autonomic and somatic system

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4
Q

Brain

A

Organ inside the head that controls all bodily functions of a human bein. Consists of many nerve cells that are connected to other nerve cells in the body.

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5
Q

Spinal Chord

A

A column of nerve tissue from the base of th skull to center of the back
Function: Transmits nerve signals from the brain to other parts of the body

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6
Q

Somatic System

A

in vertebrates, division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscle; conducts signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles and signals from the sensory receptors in the body to the CNS

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7
Q

Autonomic System

A

The division of the peripheral nervous system that is under involuntary control; regulates glandular secretion and the function of smooth and cardiac muscle

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8
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

division of the autonomic system; works in opposition of parasympathetic nervous system; activated in stress related situation
(i.e: heart beat)

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9
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

Division of the autonomic system; works in opposition of sympathetic nervous system; activated when body is calm and at rest

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10
Q

homeostasis

A

the tendency of the body to maintain a relatively constant internal environment

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11
Q

Neurons

A

nerve cell; the structural and functional unit of the nervous system; consisting of a nucleus, cell body, dendrites, axons, and a myekin sheath;
Functions:
1. specialized to respond to physical and chemical stimuli
2. to conduct electrochemical signals
3. to release chemicals that regulate various body processes

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12
Q

Glial Cells

A

support cell of the nervous system
Function:
1. nourishes neurons (nerve-impulse conducting cells)
2. removes their wastes, defends against infection
3. provides a supporting framework for all the nervous system tissue

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13
Q

nerves

A

message pathway of the nervous system; made up of many neurons grouped into bundles and surrounded by protective connective tiisuue
Function:
1. extend the neurons throughout the peripheral nervous system.
2. Some nerves consist of neurons that carry information from sensory receptors
3. Other nerves carry information to the muscles or glands
3 types of neurons form basic impulse-transmission pathway of the entire nervous system

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14
Q

basic impulse-transmission pathway

A
  1. Sensory input: Sensory neurons gather information from the sensory receptors (senses) and transmit these impulses to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
  2. Integration: Interneurons are found entirely within the central nervous system. They act as a link between the sensory and motor neurons. They process and integrate incoming sensory information, and relay outgoing motor information.
  3. Motor output: Motor neurons transmit information from the central nervous system to the muscles, glands, and other organs (effectors)
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15
Q

sensory receptors

A

cell or group of cells scattered throughout the body that works continually to receive information about the body’s external conditions (through the 5 sense) and internal conditions (i.e: temperature, pH, glucose levels, and blood pressure),and then initiates neural impulses in response
Function: receive stimuli and form nerve impulse

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16
Q

sensory neurons

A

See neuron definition
Function: transmit impulses from the sensory receptors to the interneurons

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17
Q

interneurons

A

See neuron definition
Function: are found in the brain and spinal cord; act as an integration centre

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18
Q

motor neurons

A

See neuron definition
Function: conduct impulses from the interneurons to the effectors

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19
Q

reflex arcs

A

simple connection of neurons that results in a reflex action in response to stimulus
- use very few neurons to transmit messages but are very rapid
1. stimulus; 2. pain receptor; 3. sensory neuron; 4. interneuron; 5. motor neuron; 6. effector (muscle); 7. response
1. receptors in the skin perceive the stimulus and initiate an impulse in a sensory neuron
2. Sensory information is conducted from the senses into the spinal cord. The impulse carried by the sensory activates the interneuron in the spinal cord.
3. Motor information is then conducted away from the spinal cord to the muscles and glands. the interneuron signals the motor neuron to instruct the muscle to contract and withdraw the hand.

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20
Q

dendrites

A

short, branching terminal on a nerve cell (neuron); numerous and highly branched which increase the surface area available to receive information
Function: receives signals from other neurons or sensory receptors and relays the impulse to the cell body

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21
Q

cell body

A

the main part of a neuron, containing the nucleus and other organelles and serving as the site of the cell’s metabolic reactions
Function: processes input from the dendrites and, if the input received is large enough, relays it to the axon, where an impulse is initiated

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22
Q

axon

A

long, cylindrical extension of a neuron’s cell body that can range from 1mm to 1m in length
Function: transmits impulses away from the cell body along its length to the next neuron
Typically only one found in a neuron.

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23
Q

myelin sheath

A

the fatty, insulating layer around the axon of a nerve cell, composed of Schwann cells
Form what is known as white matter while unmyelinated neurons form the grey matter.
Most nerves in peripheral system are myelinated.
Function: protects myelinated neurons and speeds the rate of nerve impulse transmission

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24
Q

Schwann cells

A

a type of insulating glial cell that wraps around the axon of a neuron, creating a myelin sheath

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25
Q

Action potential

A

Nerve impulse consists of a series of action potentials
Definition: in an axon, the change in charge that occurs when the gates of K+ channels close and the gates of Na+ channels open after a wave of depolarization is triggered
- occur only at nodes of Ranvier in myelinated neurons because myelin sheath insulates the axonal membrane

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26
Q

nodes of Ranvier

A

gap in the myelin sheath insulating the axon of a myelinated nerve cell; the membrane of the axon is exposed and action potentials occur only at these nodes; nerve impulses jump from one node of Ranvier to the next

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27
Q

depolarized

A

in a neuronal membrane, reducing a membrane potential to less than the resting potential of -70mV

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28
Q

threshold potential

A

in a neuronal membrane, the minimum change in the membrane potential required to generate an action potential; usually -55 mV

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29
Q

repolarized

A

return of a nerve to its resting potential following depolarization

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30
Q

membrane potential

A

electrical charge separation across a cell membrane; a form of potential energy

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31
Q

resting membrane potential

A

potential difference across the membrane in a resting neuron

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32
Q

polarization

A

lowering the membrane potential of the cell below its equilibrium value; in nerves, the process of generating a resting membrane potential of -70mV

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33
Q

sodium-potassium exchange pump

A

system involving a carrier protein in the plasma membrane that uses the energy of ATP to transport sodium ions out of and potassium ions into animals cells; important in nerve and muscle cells.

34
Q

Resting membrane potential: The sodium potassium exchange pump

A

3 Na+ outside of the cell=2 K+ move inside of the cell following the concentration gradient
1. The carrier protein has a shape that allows it to take up three sodium ions (Na+)
2. ATP is split, and a phosphate groups is transferred to the carrier protein
3. A change in shape of the carrier protein causes the release of three sodium ions (Na+) outside the cell. the altered shape permits the uptake of two potassium ions (K+)
4. The phosphate group is released from the carrier protein
5. A change in shape of the carrier protein causes the protein to release the potassium ions (K+) in the cell. the carrier protein is once again able to take up three sodium ions (Na+)

Resting membrane potential: no nerve impulses are transmitted along the axon

35
Q

Effector

A

muscles, glands, and other organs that respond to impulses from the motor neurons

36
Q

Axon terminal

A

Passes info to the dendrites of other neurons; relaxes neurotransmitters

37
Q

Neurilemma

A

Membrane that repairs damaged myelins
; PNS only

38
Q

Dorsal root ganglion

A

Cluster of cell bodies of sensory neurons just outside of spinal chord

39
Q

ventral root ganglion

A

cluster of axons of motor neurons leaving the spinal chord; cell bodies are inside CNS

40
Q

Neurons ( not definition but information)

A
  • Basic structural, functional unit of NS
  • They can never touch one another
  • Communicate with each other using electrochemical impulses
  • Nourished by special cells called glial cells
41
Q

Action Potential Steps

A
  1. Resting membrane potential/polarization
  2. Depolarization
  3. Repolarization
  4. Refractory period
42
Q

Resting membrane Potential (define and another name for it)

A

(AKA polarization)
First step
• The cistern in an unstimulated neuron (I.e: not receiving info from the senses)
• Na+ are outside of the axon, K+ are inside
• Na and K+ channels are barely open so there is no net movement of ions
• Resting potential of most neurons is -70 millivolts (mV)

*Voltage is always for the inside of the axon only

43
Q

Depolarization

A

Second Step
- A stimulus (ex.pressure, a chemical, heat, light) causes Na+ channels to OPEN. K+ channels are CLOSED
- Na+ diffuse into the axon; inside of the neuron to become less negative
- Eventually, the stimulus is strong enough to cause THRESHOLD to be reached; huge influx of Na+ INTO the neuron
**the threshold point for most neurons is -50mV
- This increases the membrane potential to +35mV to +40mV
- The membrane is now said to be DEPOLARIZED

44
Q

Repolarization

A

Third Step
- Na+ channels, CLOSE and K+ channels OPEN
- K+ move from inside of the neuron to the outside
- The large amount of K+ out of the neuron makes the inside very negatively charged (drops to -85 mV (marking the membrane hyperpolarized)
**Note: hyperpolarized is usually at -85mV

45
Q

Refractory Period

A

Fourth Step
• Sodium-Potassium Pump is used to restore resting membrane potential (-70mV)
• Using ATP, the pump moves 3Na+ out for every 2 K+ in, until resting potential is restored
• Na+/K+ pump is a protein channel located in axon membrane

46
Q

Basic information for action potential

A
  • The axon membrane has Na+ and K+ channels
  • There are negatively charged ions (i.e: chloride) and proteins inside the axon that NEVER leave
  • K+ channels > Na+ channels (there are more potassium channels that sodium channels in the membrane)
  • The movement of ions across the membrane creates electrical differences on either side of the membrane <-(membrane potential)
47
Q

Synaptic transmission

A
48
Q

synapse

A

junction between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector (muscle or gland)

49
Q

Unmyelinated Nerve Impulse

A

When someone is tasered, a large (25 000V) amount o electricity overloads the motor neurons of the somatic system, momentarily incapacitating the body
- the electricity interferes with the NS because it depends on the cell’s ability to conduct nerve impulses.
- nerves detect a difference about the voltage outside and inside the cell membrane and use this to generate a neural impulses
- Sodium potassium pump with resting membrane potential
- action potentials can occur at all locations along the membrane but since they all occur along the axon, it is much slower than a saltatory conduction

50
Q

polarization

A

lowering the membrane potential of the cell below its equilibrium value, in nerves, the process of generating a resting membrane potential of -70mV

51
Q

myelinated nerve impulse

A
  • occurs at nodes of Ranvier
  • consists of a series of action potentials
  • the process of one action potential stimulating the production of another at the next node constitutes a nerve impulse
52
Q

saltatory conduction

A

the conduction of an impulse along a myelinated neuron is called saltatory conduction

53
Q

Multiple Sclerosis

A
  • caused by the breakdown of the myelin sheath surrounding the axons in the CNS.
  • the neurons can no longer efficiently carry electrochemical signals between the brain and the body.
  • autoimmune disease where the body’s immune system breaks down the myelin: confusing it for a threat
    -Symptoms: (Benny Must Feel Very Sleepy): loss of BALANCE, MUSCLE weakness, FATIGUE, blurred VISION, slurred SPEECH
  • patients experience periods of remission and progression
54
Q

neuromuscular junction

A

synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle cell

55
Q

neurotransmitter

A

chemical messenger secreted by neurons to carry a neural signal from one neuron to another, or from a neuron to an effector, such as a gland or muscle fibre

56
Q

Synaptic Transmission

A
  • delivery of action potential from one neuron to another neuron
  • requires neurotransmitters to deliver info between neurons
57
Q

Synaptic Transmission Steps

A
  1. Action potential reaches axon terminal of presynaptic neuron
  2. Synaptic vesicle fuses with terminal membrane and recloses neuro transmitters
  3. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse & attatch to receprots on postsynaptic neuron
  4. Neurotransmiters open either Na+ or K+ channels
58
Q

Types of neurotransmitters

A

excitatory & inhibitory

59
Q

excitatory neurotransmitters

A

Open Na+ channels on postsynaptic neuron which causes depolarization. It allows action potential to continue (i.e: dopamine, acetylcholine, epinephrine)

60
Q

inhibitory

A

Open K+ channels which hyperpolarizes postsynaptic neuron. Prevents action potential from continuing (i.e: serotonin, GABA)

61
Q

acetylcholine

A

the primary neurotransmitter of both the somatic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system

62
Q

cholinesterase

A

enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in a synapse

63
Q

sarin

A

a nerve gas destroys the function of repolarization by blocking the release of cholinesterase into the neuromuscular junction. Results in a buildup of acetylc which results in muscles in heart contract in a paralysis. Found in some insecticides.

64
Q

dopamine

A

Function: affects the brain synapses in the control of body movements; is linked to sensations of pleasure, such as eating
Effects of abnormal production:
excessive production linked to schizophrenia, a disorder in which the individual’s perception of reality is greatly distorted; inadequate production linked to Parkinson’s disease, a progressive disorder that destroys neurons, causing tremors, slurred speech, and other coordination problems

65
Q

seretonin

A

Function: regulates temperature and sensory perception; is involved in mood control
Effects of abnormal production: inadequate amounts in the brain synapses linked to depression

66
Q

endorphins

A

Function: act as natural painkillers in synapses in the brain; also affects emotional areas of the brain
Effects of abnormal production: deficiency linked to an increased risk of alcoholism

67
Q

norepinephrine

A

Function: is used by the brain and some autonomic neurons; complements the actions of the hormone epinephrine, which readies the body to respond to danger or other stressful situations
Effects of abnormal production:
overproduction linked to high blood pressure, anxiety and insomnia; deficiency linked to hunger cravings and exhaustion

68
Q

acetylcholine (IB)

A

excitatory neurotransmitter (heart, digestion, skeletal);
choline + acetyl group –> acetylcholine

69
Q

cholinesterase (IB)

A

enzyme that breaks acetylcholine down so it can be removed from receptors & synapse. this allows muscles to relax

acetylcholine —> choline + acetate

70
Q

What are neonicotinoids and what is their function?

A
  • synthetic compounds similar to nicotine
  • blocks synaptic transmission at cholinergic synapses in insects by binding of neonicotinoid pesticides to acetylcholine receptors, killing insects/pests in the process
71
Q

In a few short steps, explain how neonicotinoids work.

A
72
Q

What is one of the main advantages for the use of neonicotinoids? Why?

A
73
Q

Nothing is perfect - what is one of the major concerns with the use of insecticides?

A
74
Q

cerebrum

A
75
Q

cerebellum

A
76
Q

medulla onlongata

A
77
Q

thalamus

A
78
Q

hypothalamus

A
79
Q

midbrain

A
80
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A

150ml of fluid at any given time.
Fluid acts as a shock absorber for the brain and spinal chord.

Biology 30 (1 decks)

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