Chapter 11 Theories Of Learning Flashcards
Conditioning
The process of learning associations between a stimulus (or event) in the environment and a behavioural response.
Types of conditioning
Classical
Operant
Classical conditioning
A type of learning that occurs through repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli.
Learning is occurring when linking one stimulus to another to automatically produce a response.
The elements of classical conditioning
Neutral stimulus: NS Unconditioned stimulus: UCS Unconditioned response: UCR Conditioned stimulus: CS Conditioned response: CR
Neutral stimulus
An item/object/action that fails to produce a response prior to being conditioned
Pavlovs dog: the bell
Unconditioned stimulus
Any stimulus that consistently produces a particularly naturally occurring automatic response
Pavlovs dog: the food
Unconditioned response
The response that occurs automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented
Pavlovs dog: salivation
Conditioned stimulus
The stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not produce the unconditioned response on its own. However through association with the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus triggers a fairly similar response.
Conditioned response
The learned response that is produced by the conditioned stimulus.
Key processes
Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Stimulus generalisation Stimulus discrimination
Acquisition
The overall process during which an organism learns to associate two events (NS+UCS=CS)
Stage measured by no. of trails taken to CR to be learnt
Extinction
Gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer present
Spontaneous recovery
The CR reappearing after a period of rest has occurred and the CR would have been seen to be extinct
- does not always occur
- if it does occur it is often weaker and shorter than it was when first conditioned
Stimulus generalisation
The tendency for another stimulus that is similar to the CS to produces a response that I s similar to the CR
Stimulus discrimination
The tendency for an organism to respond ONLY to the CS and no other similar stimuli
Applications of classical conditioning
Experiments:
- Pavlov’s dog
- Watson’s Little Albert
Conditioned emotional response
3 practical types
- Aversion therapy
- Flooding
- Gradual
Pavlov’s dog
Pavlov became famous for his experiment with dogs, measuring natural saliva amounts from the role of digestion as a dog eats. He then measured the amount of saliva when food was placed in a bowl or on the dog’s tongue. Pavlov noticed that after time the dog would salivate not only when food was near, but then when they heard the food being prepared, and later when the dog heard a certain sound. He won a noble prize in 1904 for his work! and is considered to be a learning founder.
Watson’s Little Albert
One of the most controversial and best-known studies that used classical conditioning to intentionally condition an emotional response was first reported in the 1920 by American Psychologist John B Watson.
The research was designed to test the belief that fears can be acquired through classical conditioning.
Watson wanted to demonstrate experimentally that humans undergo the same process in acquiring fears as animals do.
The research participant was Albert B (little Albert), the 11 month old son of a woman who worked at the same clinic as Watson.
Conditioned Emotional response
an emotional reaction that usually occurs when the autonomic nervous system produces a response to a stimulus that did not previously trigger that response.
Ethical questions for Watson’s Little Albert experiment
Confidentiality (true) Voluntary participation (true) Withdrawal rights (false): not clear in Watson's report whether this was exercised. Deception (true) Debriefing (false): Alberts fears was never extinguished prior to the experiment ending. Informed consent (false): It is believed the mother did not know that her son was being used in a conditioned study regarding fear.
Ethical value
Beneficence- it is the researchers responsibility to ensure that the experiment is not psychologically harmful for the subject Albert was subjected to anxiety & distress and the researchers made no attempt to end the study in response to his clear distress. This fear may have had long lasting psychological effects for Albert
Gradual exposure
Presenting successive approximations of the CS until the CS it self does not produce the CR
Example
A person who has a fear of something is gradually introduced or exposed to their fears and CS itself . This happens until they are gradually desensitised
Gradual exposure process
1-Subject is taught relaxation technique
2-Subject is asked to break down their phobia into steps (4 minimum) from most to least frightening
3-Therapist leads deep muscle relaxation while the subject imagines (or experiences) each stage of their phobia, starting with the least frightening
4-Once relaxation is achieved, repeat the procedure with a more frightening stage, until the subject is relaxed throughout the whole experience
*Works best with real life experiences (in vivo exposure) rather than just visualisation (imaginal exposure)
Flooding
Involves bringing the subject in direct contact with the anxiety or fear producing stimulus, and keeping the subject in contact until the conditioned response is extinguished.
The principle underlying this technique is that anxiety will be experienced at a very high level and then gradually diminish, thereby enabling the client to experience the CS in the absence of the CR.
Aversion therapy
a form of behavioural therapy that applies classical conditioning processes, to inhibit (block) or discourage undesirable behaviours through and by associating (pairing) it with an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus
The aim of aversion therapy is to suppress or weaken the undesirable behaviour.
E.g pain, disgust or nausea
In adults, aversion therapy is widely used in the treatment of people who wish to stop smoking or drinking alcohol (and other addictive behaviours).
Limitations of gradual exposure
?
Limitations of flooding
?
Limitations of aversion therapy
Often fails to be generalised to situations other than those which took place.
Trail and error learning
learning by trying alternative possibilities until the desired outcome is achieved
This type of learning occurs when an organism attempts to learn by undertaking a number of alternative behaviours (trials) and makes a number of incorrect choices (errors) before the desired behaviour is learned.
Trial and error learning involves a desire to reach some sort of goal (motivation) by the learner. It also involves trying a number of different behaviours (exploration). And when the correct response is finally achieved, it is rewarding for the organism (reinforcement).
Requirements of trail and error learning
Motivation (the desire to attain goal)
Exploration (some activity either, purposeful or random)
Responses (will be incorrect Vs. correct)
Reward (needed when correct choice is made)
(M.E.R.R)
Operant conditioning
a learning process were the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring again is determined by its consequences
Operant
a response (or set or responses) that occurs (operates) on the environment to produce some kind of effect
3 phase model
The stimulus (comes before the response) The operant response (to the stimulus) The consequence (from the operant response)
B.F.Skinner’s experiments
He described Operant conditioning:
were an organism will tend to repeat a behaviour that has a desirable consequence (eg. receiving a treat)
OR
that an organism will avoid undesirable consequences, and not repeat a behaviour that has undesirable consequences (eg. a fine or disapproval)
Skinner described respondents (behaviours produced by known or recognised stimuli) –meaning that if the responses are not made, the consequence doesn’t happen
He designed a skinner box to test this
Skinner Box – conditioning chamber that allows an animal to receive a reward/punishment for particular behaviours, e.g. levers for food and/or water, lights/buzzers, shock pad etc
Most of Skinner’s early experiments using the Skinner box were done with rats, while his later experiments were performed using pigeons. Rats were conditioned to press the lever, pigeons were conditioned to peck at a disk.
The box was usually linked to a recorder that monitors the responses of the experimental animal – records frequency and speed of responses
When a hungry rat was placed in the box, it scurried around the box and randomly touched parts of the floors and walls .
Eventually, the rat accidently pressed a lever mounted on one wall. Immediately, a pellet of rat food dropped into the food dish and the rat ate it.
The rat continued the random movements and eventually pressed the lever again. Another pellet dropped immediately and was eaten.
With additional repetitions of lever pressings followed by food, the rats random movements begin the disappear and were replaced by more consistent lever-pressing.
Eventually, the rat was pressing the lever as fast as it could eat each pellet.
The pellet was a reward (desirable consequence) for making the correct responses. This reinforced the behaviour
Skinner referred to different types of reward as reinforcers .
Skinner had an interest in demonstrating the impact of reinforcement and his laboratory apparatus was able to reward the animals according to different types of programs or schedules of reinforcement. (Eg: providing a reinforcer every time a correct response was made).
Skinner intentionally used hungry rats.
Their hunger was their motivation for frantic activity.
This high rate of activity increased the likelihood (probability) that the lever would eventually be pressed & the food reward dispensed.
Skinner believed that behaviour can be understood in terms of environmental, or external influences without any consideration of internal, mental processes.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is central to operant conditioning, as reinforcement occurs as a result of the consequences of behaviour.
A response that is rewarded will be strengthened and a response that is punished will be weakened.
Reinforcement and punishment can be delivered in many different ways.
