Chapter 11 Theories Of Learning

Question 1

Conditioning

Answer 1

The process of learning associations between a stimulus (or event) in the environment and a behavioural response.

Question 2

Types of conditioning

Answer 2

Classical

Operant

Question 3

Classical conditioning

Answer 3

A type of learning that occurs through repeated association of 2 or more different stimuli.
Learning is occurring when linking one stimulus to another to automatically produce a response.

Question 4

The elements of classical conditioning

Answer 4

Neutral stimulus: NS
Unconditioned stimulus: UCS
Unconditioned response: UCR
Conditioned stimulus: CS
Conditioned response: CR

Question 5

Neutral stimulus

Answer 5

An item/object/action that fails to produce a response prior to being conditioned
Pavlovs dog: the bell

Question 6

Unconditioned stimulus

Answer 6

Any stimulus that consistently produces a particularly naturally occurring automatic response
Pavlovs dog: the food

Question 7

Unconditioned response

Answer 7

The response that occurs automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented
Pavlovs dog: salivation

Question 8

Conditioned stimulus

Answer 8

The stimulus that is neutral at the start of the conditioning process and does not produce the unconditioned response on its own. However through association with the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned stimulus triggers a fairly similar response.

Question 9

Conditioned response

Answer 9

The learned response that is produced by the conditioned stimulus.

Question 10

Key processes

Answer 10

Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Stimulus generalisation
Stimulus discrimination

Question 11

Acquisition

Answer 11

The overall process during which an organism learns to associate two events (NS+UCS=CS)
Stage measured by no. of trails taken to CR to be learnt

Question 12

Extinction

Answer 12

Gradual decrease in the strength or rate of a CR that occurs when the UCS is no longer present

Question 13

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 13

The CR reappearing after a period of rest has occurred and the CR would have been seen to be extinct

• does not always occur
• if it does occur it is often weaker and shorter than it was when first conditioned

Question 14

Stimulus generalisation

Answer 14

The tendency for another stimulus that is similar to the CS to produces a response that I s similar to the CR

Question 15

Stimulus discrimination

Answer 15

The tendency for an organism to respond ONLY to the CS and no other similar stimuli

Question 16

Applications of classical conditioning

Answer 16

Experiments:

• Pavlov’s dog
• Watson’s Little Albert

Conditioned emotional response

3 practical types

• Aversion therapy
• Flooding
• Gradual

Question 17

Pavlov’s dog

Answer 17

Pavlov became famous for his experiment with dogs, measuring natural saliva amounts from the role of digestion as a dog eats. He then measured the amount of saliva when food was placed in a bowl or on the dog’s tongue. Pavlov noticed that after time the dog would salivate not only when food was near, but then when they heard the food being prepared, and later when the dog heard a certain sound. He won a noble prize in 1904 for his work! and is considered to be a learning founder.

Question 18

Watson’s Little Albert

Answer 18

One of the most controversial and best-known studies that used classical conditioning to intentionally condition an emotional response was first reported in the 1920 by American Psychologist John B Watson.
The research was designed to test the belief that fears can be acquired through classical conditioning.
Watson wanted to demonstrate experimentally that humans undergo the same process in acquiring fears as animals do.
The research participant was Albert B (little Albert), the 11 month old son of a woman who worked at the same clinic as Watson.

Question 19

Conditioned Emotional response

Answer 19

an emotional reaction that usually occurs when the autonomic nervous system produces a response to a stimulus that did not previously trigger that response.

Question 20

Ethical questions for Watson’s Little Albert experiment

Answer 20

Confidentiality (true)
Voluntary participation (true)
Withdrawal rights (false): not clear in Watson's report whether this was exercised.
Deception (true)
Debriefing (false): Alberts fears was never extinguished prior to the experiment ending.
Informed consent (false): It is believed the mother did not know that her son was being used in a conditioned study regarding fear.

Ethical value
Beneficence- it is the researchers responsibility to ensure that the experiment is not psychologically harmful for the subject Albert was subjected to anxiety & distress and the researchers made no attempt to end the study in response to his clear distress. This fear may have had long lasting psychological effects for Albert

Question 21

Gradual exposure

Answer 21

Presenting successive approximations of the CS until the CS it self does not produce the CR

Example
A person who has a fear of something is gradually introduced or exposed to their fears and CS itself . This happens until they are gradually desensitised

Question 22

Gradual exposure process

Answer 22

1-Subject is taught relaxation technique
2-Subject is asked to break down their phobia into steps (4 minimum) from most to least frightening
3-Therapist leads deep muscle relaxation while the subject imagines (or experiences) each stage of their phobia, starting with the least frightening
4-Once relaxation is achieved, repeat the procedure with a more frightening stage, until the subject is relaxed throughout the whole experience

*Works best with real life experiences (in vivo exposure) rather than just visualisation (imaginal exposure)

Question 23

Flooding

Answer 23

Involves bringing the subject in direct contact with the anxiety or fear producing stimulus, and keeping the subject in contact until the conditioned response is extinguished.
The principle underlying this technique is that anxiety will be experienced at a very high level and then gradually diminish, thereby enabling the client to experience the CS in the absence of the CR.

Question 24

Aversion therapy

Answer 24

a form of behavioural therapy that applies classical conditioning processes, to inhibit (block) or discourage undesirable behaviours through and by associating (pairing) it with an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus
The aim of aversion therapy is to suppress or weaken the undesirable behaviour.
E.g pain, disgust or nausea
In adults, aversion therapy is widely used in the treatment of people who wish to stop smoking or drinking alcohol (and other addictive behaviours).

Question 25

Limitations of gradual exposure

Answer 25

?

Question 26

Limitations of flooding

Answer 26

?

Question 27

Limitations of aversion therapy

Answer 27

Often fails to be generalised to situations other than those which took place.

Question 28

Trail and error learning

Answer 28

learning by trying alternative possibilities until the desired outcome is achieved This type of learning occurs when an organism attempts to learn by undertaking a number of alternative behaviours (trials) and makes a number of incorrect choices (errors) before the desired behaviour is learned. Trial and error learning involves a desire to reach some sort of goal (motivation) by the learner. It also involves trying a number of different behaviours (exploration). And when the correct response is finally achieved, it is rewarding for the organism (reinforcement).

Question 29

Requirements of trail and error learning

Answer 29

Motivation (the desire to attain goal) Exploration (some activity either, purposeful or random) Responses (will be incorrect Vs. correct) Reward (needed when correct choice is made) (M.E.R.R)

Question 30

Operant conditioning

Answer 30

a learning process were the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring again is determined by its consequences

Question 31

Operant

Answer 31

a response (or set or responses) that occurs (operates) on the environment to produce some kind of effect

Question 32

3 phase model

Answer 32

``` The stimulus (comes before the response) The operant response (to the stimulus) The consequence (from the operant response) ```

Question 33

B.F.Skinner's experiments

Answer 33

He described Operant conditioning: were an organism will tend to repeat a behaviour that has a desirable consequence (eg. receiving a treat) OR that an organism will avoid undesirable consequences, and not repeat a behaviour that has undesirable consequences (eg. a fine or disapproval) Skinner described respondents (behaviours produced by known or recognised stimuli) –meaning that if the responses are not made, the consequence doesn’t happen He designed a skinner box to test this Skinner Box – conditioning chamber that allows an animal to receive a reward/punishment for particular behaviours, e.g. levers for food and/or water, lights/buzzers, shock pad etc Most of Skinner’s early experiments using the Skinner box were done with rats, while his later experiments were performed using pigeons. Rats were conditioned to press the lever, pigeons were conditioned to peck at a disk. The box was usually linked to a recorder that monitors the responses of the experimental animal – records frequency and speed of responses When a hungry rat was placed in the box, it scurried around the box and randomly touched parts of the floors and walls . Eventually, the rat accidently pressed a lever mounted on one wall. Immediately, a pellet of rat food dropped into the food dish and the rat ate it. The rat continued the random movements and eventually pressed the lever again. Another pellet dropped immediately and was eaten. With additional repetitions of lever pressings followed by food, the rats random movements begin the disappear and were replaced by more consistent lever-pressing. Eventually, the rat was pressing the lever as fast as it could eat each pellet. The pellet was a reward (desirable consequence) for making the correct responses. This reinforced the behaviour Skinner referred to different types of reward as reinforcers . Skinner had an interest in demonstrating the impact of reinforcement and his laboratory apparatus was able to reward the animals according to different types of programs or schedules of reinforcement. (Eg: providing a reinforcer every time a correct response was made). Skinner intentionally used hungry rats. Their hunger was their motivation for frantic activity. This high rate of activity increased the likelihood (probability) that the lever would eventually be pressed & the food reward dispensed. Skinner believed that behaviour can be understood in terms of environmental, or external influences without any consideration of internal, mental processes.

Question 34

Reinforcement

Answer 34

Reinforcement is central to operant conditioning, as reinforcement occurs as a result of the consequences of behaviour. A response that is rewarded will be strengthened and a response that is punished will be weakened. Reinforcement and punishment can be delivered in many different ways.

Question 35

Reinforcement definition

Answer 35

said to occur when a stimulus (event or object) strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of the response (behaviour) occurring again.

Question 36

Reinforcer

Answer 36

any stimulus (object or event) that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of the response (behavior) occurring again.

Question 37

Two types of reinforcement

Answer 37

any stimulus that STRENGHENS a response by providing a pleasant or satisfying consequence (positive reinforcer) occurs from giving a positive reinforcer after the desired response has been made(positive reinforcement)

Question 38

Negative reinforcement

Answer 38

any unpleasant or aversive stimulus(negative reinforcer) | the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus(negative reinforcement)

Question 39

Punisher

Answer 39

any stimulus (action or event) that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a response (behaviour)

Question 40

Positive punishment

Answer 40

occurs when a behaviour is followed by a negative experience, the punisher is likely to decrease the frequency or likelihood of that behaviour occurring again.

Question 41

Negative punishment

Answer 41

involves the removal or loss of a stimulus and thereby decreasing (or weakening) the likelihood of a response occurring again

Question 42

Response cost

Answer 42

a form of punishment that occurs when something desirable is removed, &/OR ‘costs’ you (is of value to you)

Question 43

Factors that influence the effectiveness of consequences

Answer 43

OAT's Order of presentation-reinforcement needs to occur after the desired response not before, so the organism associates the reinforcement with the behavior Appropriateness-for a stimulus to be a reinforce it must provide a pleasing or satisfying (and appropriate) consequence for its recipient. Timing-reinforcers need to occur as close in time to the desired response as possible

Question 44

Schedules of reinforcement

Answer 44

a program for giving reinforcement, specifically the frequency and manner in which in which a desired response is reinforced.

Question 45

Type twos of schedules of reinforcement

Answer 45

Continuous | Partial

Question 46

Continuous Reinforcement

Answer 46

reinforcement provided after every correct response. | Continuous Reinforcement is necessary for a response to become learned

Question 47

Partial Reinforcement

Answer 47

the process of reinforcing some correct responses, but not all of them. Partial Reinforcement can be more effective at maintaining a response

Question 48

Partial schedules can be either:

Answer 48

Ratio – the number of responses OR Interval - the length of time with on correct response & Fixed – a set or predictable reward for a response OR Variable - a response is rewarded without regular frequency or predictability (unpredictable)

Question 49

Fixed-ratio schedule (FR)

Answer 49

fixed ratio schedule (FR)—reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of correct responses

Question 50

Variable-ratio schedules (VR)

Answer 50

reinforcement occurs on the basis of a set average number of correct responses but is not regular in its occurrence

Question 51

Fixed interval schedule (FI)

Answer 51

reinforcement is delivered after a fixed time period as long as at least one correct response has been given

Question 52

Variable interval schedules (VI)

Answer 52

reinforcement occurs on an average of a set time interval but not with regular frequency

Question 53

Effectiveness of partial schedules

Answer 53

VR- fast learning but drops off just after reinforcement FR- fastest rate of learning, lowest chance of extinction VI- medium rate of learning, increases just before reinforcement FI- steady but slow rate of learning

Question 54

Key processes

Answer 54

``` acquisition, extinction, stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and spontaneous recovery ```

Question 55

Acquisition

Answer 55

The establishment of a particular behavior through reinforcement OR the weakening of a response through punishment The speed of acquisition depends on the reinforcement schedule

Question 56

Extinction

Answer 56

Gradual decrease in frequency of a conditioned behaviour following a period without reinforcement Extinction has occurred when the conditioned response no longer occurs Extinction takes longer when a variable reinforcement schedule is used, as the learner is used to gaps in reinforcement

Question 57

Stimulus generalisation

Answer 57

When the desired behaviour occurs in response to a stimulus that is similar to the original environmental stimulus Usually occurs at a lower frequency or strength than the original conditioned response

Question 58

Stimulus discrimination

Answer 58

When the conditioned behaviour ONLY occurs in response to the particular stimulus, and not to any other similar stimuli Reinforcement can help teach stimulus discrimination – only reinforce the response to the specific stimulus, never to any of the similar stimuli

Question 59

Spontaneous recovery

Answer 59

Reoccurrence of conditioned behaviour after extinction has occurred and without any reinforcement Tends to be weaker and not last as long as during acquisition Also spontaneous recovery tends to be weaker the longer it occurs after extinction

Question 60

Applications of operant conditioning

Answer 60

Shaping, token economy

Question 61

Shaping

Answer 61

Shaping is a procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that gets closer and closer to the desired behavior (successively approximates and ultimately leads to the desired behavior) Also called method of successive approximations Good for behaviors that are not naturally occurring, but the individual is capable of achieving

Question 62

Steps in shaping

Answer 62

identify the ‘target’ or desired behaviour identify steps that lead from the present behaviour to the target reinforce the first step, then do not reinforce until the second is performed and so on.

Question 63

Token economy

Answer 63

a setting in which an individual receives tokens (reinforcers) for desired behaviour

Question 64

Limitations of token economy

Answer 64

difficult to apply some people may feel manipulated some people may refuse to co operate and their behaviours may be worse

Question 65

Limitations of shaping

Answer 65

?

Question 66

Comparing Classical and operant

Answer 66

Role of the learner Timing of stimulus and response The nature of the response

Question 67

Comparing Classical and operant: role of the learner

Answer 67

Classical: they are passive and have no control over the learning Operant: they are active and must operate on stimuli, they have control weather they register the consequences(oAts:appropriateness)

Question 68

Comparing Classical and operant: Timing of stimulus and response

Answer 68

Classical:the response depends on the presentation of the UCS occurring first Operant:In operant conditioning, the presentation of the reinforcer or punisher depends on the response occurring first. The response occurs in the presence of a stimulus (e.g. the lever). The reinforcement or punisher received as a consequence of the response strengthens or weakens the stimulus–response association Classical: the timing of the two stimuli (CS, then UCS) produces an association between them that conditions the learner to anticipate the UCS and respond to it even if it is not presented Operant: In operant conditioning, the association that is conditioned is between the stimulus and the response. The response is either strengthened by reinforcement or weakened through punishment. Classical:the timing of the two stimuli (CS, then UCS) needs to be very close (ideally about half a second) and the sequencing is vital—the CS must come before the UCS. Operant: while learning generally occurs faster when the reinforcement or punishment occurs soon after the response (behaviour), there can be a considerable time difference between them

Question 69

Comparing Classical and operant: the nature of the response

Answer 69

Classical: the response by the learner is usually a reflexive involuntary one Operant: the response by the learner is usually a voluntary one but may also be involuntary Classical: the response is often one involving the action of the autonomic nervous system, and the association of the two stimuli is often not conscious or deliberate Operant: the response may involve the autonomic nervous system but usually involves the central nervous system (e.g. the brain) and is conscious, intentional and often goal-directed.

Question 70

Observational learning | Aka social learning/ modelling

Answer 70

occurs when someone uses observation of another model’s (person’s) actions and their consequences to guide their future actions.

Question 71

Banduras suggestions

Answer 71

through observation a person may learn a behaviour through simply watching it The behaviour DOES NOT need to be carried out or the consequences experienced in order to learn (as with operant conditioning). Simply watching (observing) the behaviour & consequences of someone else is just as effective Therefore, we are more likely to model the behaviour of someone else if it is observed to be desirable & reinforcing

Question 72

Vicarious (indirect) learnings

Answer 72

1. Vicarious conditioning 2. Vicarious reinforcement and 3. Vicarious punishment

Question 73

Vicarious conditioning

Answer 73

an individual watches a model’s displaying behaviour that is either reinforced or punished AND then behaves in exactly the same way or in a modified way OR refrains from the behaviour as a result of what they have observed

Question 74

Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 74

increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behaviour is reinforced

Question 75

Vicarious punishment

Answer 75

occurs when the likelihood of an observer preforming a particular behaviour decreases after having seen the model’s behaviour being punished.

Question 76

Bobo doll results and conclusions

Answer 76

Results: Children who saw the model being rewarded, or having no consequences, were more likely to be aggressive than children who observed the model being punished. Boys tended to be more aggressive than girls However, when rewarded, girls were almost as aggressive Both genders in all conditions were more aggressive when they were rewarded for their own aggression Conclusions: Most children had acquired the learned response (aggression), but did not perform it until rewarded themselves Observational learning can occur even if the model’s behaviour receives no consequences Observed behaviours are more likely to be performed if the learner is expecting reinforcement (vicariously or actually)

Question 77

Observational learning processes

Answer 77

``` Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation Reinforcement (A.R.R.M,R right long arm) ```

Question 78

Pay attention in order to observe the modeled behaviour

Answer 78

Attention may be influenced by numerous factors, such as: - The motivation and interest level of the observer - personality characteristics of the model - attractiveness Bandura suggested we pay closer attention if: The model is perceived positively, liked, high status There are perceived similarities (between model and observer) eg age, sex The model is familiar throughout the observation The models behaviour is visible and stands out against completing possible models Modelled behaviour is perceived to be imitated

Question 79

Retention (remembering)

Answer 79

Mentally retain what has been observed Responses learned by modeling are often not needed until some time after they have been acquired Therefore, memory plays an active role in observational learning. Linking a visual image with a verbal description of the model’s action is an effective strategy to assist in the memory process.

Question 80

Be capable of Reproducing the behaviour (reproduction)

Answer 80

Putting into practice what we have observed Our ability to reproduce the modeled response may be restricted by physical ' limitations We must have the POTENTIONAL to be competent enough to develop the necessary skills to imitate the behaviour

Question 81

The learner has to be motivated (motivation)

Answer 81

Unless the behavioral response provides a reward for you, it is unlikely that you will want to learn it or carry on to improve that behaviour. YOU MUST BE MOTIVED TO DO THAT BEHAVIOUR Motivation is influenced by the prospect of reinforcement

Question 82

The learner may have some reinforcement

Answer 82

Bandura distinguished between different types of reinforcement that influence motivation: External reinforcement Vicarious reinforcement Self reinforcement

Question 83

External reinforcement

Answer 83

comparable to learning by consequences (eg praise or money) e.g. more likely to be motivated if you receive a + reinforcer

Question 84

Vicarious reinforcement

Answer 84

Vicarious reinforcement: occurs indirectly, observing the model’s behaviour being reinforced w/o personally experiencing the reinforcement

Question 85

Self reinforcement

Answer 85

Self reinforcement: reinforced by meeting standards of performance set by ourselves