Chapter 11 - Problem Solving and Creativity

Question 1

Problem solving

Answer 1

An effort to overcome obstacles obstructing the path to a solution.

Question 2

The problem-solving cycle

Answer 2

Identification - do we have a problem?
Definition - what (type) is the problem?
Strategy - how should we solve the problem - divergent/convergent thinking?
Organizing - how do the various pieces of information about the problem fit together?
Resource gathering - how much time, effort, and money should we put into solving the problem?
Monitoring - are we on track to solve the problem? Evaluating - did we solve the problem efficiently and correctly?

Question 3

Well-structured problems

Answer 3

Problems with clear paths to solutions.

Question 4

Ill-structured problems

Answer 4

Problems without any clear paths to solutions.

Question 5

Problem space

Answer 5

A universe of all possible actions that can be applied to solving a problem, given any constraints that apply to the solution of the problem; including the initial state, the intermediate states and the goal state.

Question 6

Algorithms

Answer 6

Sets of procedures in a problem space that may be repeated over and over again and that guarantee the solution to a problem.

Question 7

Isomorphic problems

Answer 7

Two problems with the same formal structure, but different content.

Question 8

Insight

Answer 8

A distinctive and sometimes seemingly sudden understanding of a problem or a strategy that aids in solving the problem. Insight often involves detecting and combining relevant old and new information to gain a novel view of the problem or the solution.

Question 9

Productive thinking

Answer 9

According to Wertheimer, productive thinking involves insights that go beyond the bounds of existing associations.

Question 10

Reproductive thinking

Answer 10

According to Wertheimer, reproductive thinking is based on existing associations of what is already known.

Question 11

Mental set/entrenchment

Answer 11

A frame of mind involving an existing model for representing a problem, a problem context or a procedure for problem solving. Having a mental set causes the problem solver to fixate on the most commonly working strategy.

Question 12

Functional fixedness

Answer 12

Fixation on a particular use/function of an object, and failing to see other possible uses of the object.

Question 13

Transfer

Answer 13

carryover of knowledge or skills from one problem situation to another.

Question 14

Negative transfer

Answer 14

Solving an earlier problem makes it harder to solve a later problem.

Question 15

Positive transfer

Answer 15

Solving an earlier problem makes it easier to solve a later problem.

Question 16

Analogical problem solving

Answer 16

Seeing similarities/analogies between problems. The usefulness of an analogy depends on the induced mental set of the problem solver. When the context of the two problems are more similar, participants are more likely to see and apply the analogy. People have trouble noticing analogies unless they are explicitly told to look for them. Often, we are fooled by surface similarities that do not actually indicate any deeper similarities. What matters in analogies is not the similarity of the content but how closely their structural systems of relationships match.

Question 17

Transparency

Answer 17

Seeing analogies where there they do not exist because of similar content.

Question 18

Incubation

Answer 18

Putting the problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it; a way to minimize negative transfer. The effects of incubation depends on the task and the time given.

Question 19

Embodied cognition

Answer 19

The theory that the mind influences the body and vice versa.

Question 20

Expertise

Answer 20

Superior skills or achievement reflecting a well-developed and well-organized knowledge base. Experts may have a superior framework for encoding and retrieving new information in the field. Experts have large, highly interconnected units of knowledge stored in schemas for solving problems in their field of expertise. It has been suggested that experts develop a long-term working memory in their area of expertise. Long-term working memory retains memories in a stable form, but the memories can be accessed only with adequate retrieval ques.

Question 21

Schematization

Answer 21

Developing rich, highly organized schemas.

Question 22

Automatization

Answer 22

Consolidating sequences of steps into unified routines that require little conscious control.

Question 23

Creativity

Answer 23

The process of producing something that is both original and worthwhile.

Question 24

Divergent production

Answer 24

The generation of a diverse assortment of appropriate responses.

Question 25

The investment theory of creativity

Answer 25

Multiple individual and environmental factors must converge for creativity to occur.