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Brain and Behaviour > Chapter 11 - Emotional Behaviour > Flashcards

Chapter 11 - Emotional Behaviour Flashcards

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1
Q

What systems do emotional situations arouse?

A

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system stimulates organs essential for flight or fight whilst inhibiting other activities. The parasympathetic nervous system increases digestion and other processes that save energy.

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2
Q

What is the James-Lange theory?

A

autonomic arousal and skeletal actions come before the feeling of emotion.

situation -> increased HR and running away -> fear.

Event -> appraisal -> action -> emotional feeling

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3
Q

What is pure autonomic failure?

A

The autonomic nervous system does not regulate HR etc. therefore, James-Lange theory would say that they can’t feel emotions. They report they feel anger less.

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4
Q

What does smiling do?

A

It increases happiness. Facial expressions are not required for happiness (Mobius syndrome - cannot move facial muscles to smile).

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5
Q

What does emotion involve?

A

Cognition, feeling and action.

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6
Q

What system is regarded as central to emotion?

A

The limbic system.

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7
Q

What is the behavioural activation system?

A

BAS - activity of the left hemisphere, especially its frontal and temporal lobes - marked by low autonomic arousal and a tendency to approach.

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8
Q

What is the behavioural inhibition system?

A

BIS - activity of the right hemisphere’s frontal and temporal lobes - increased attention and arousal, inhibits action and stimulates emotions such as fear and disgust.

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9
Q

What are impulsive decisions seen as?

A

Emotional decisions but they are often not. Damage to the PFC causes lack of expression of emotions -damage to the ventromedial PFC - people show inconsistent preferences and are unsure what they like or want. They show less than normal concern for others.

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10
Q

What does emotion is embodied mean?

A

What you are doing affects how you feel. (i.e. lying down makes it harder to become angry).

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11
Q

What causes aggressive behaviour?

A

Testosterone in males - young males are more likely to be aggressive.

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12
Q

What inhibits aggression and violent impulses?

A

Cortisol inhibits aggression and serotonin inhibits violent impulses.

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13
Q

What is serotonin turnover?

A

The amount of serotonin release and replacement. It is measured by the concentration of 5-HIAA - serotonin’s main metabolite in the CSF.

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14
Q

What does low serotonin turnover result in?

A

It often results in more aggressive behaviours.

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15
Q

What environmental influences make someone more susceptible to aggression or violence?

A

abused as children, witnessing violence. More violence as the temperature increases. Genes influence violent behaviour through the autonomic system.

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16
Q

What does monoamine oxidase A do?

A

MAO>A - after a neuron releases serotonin, dopamine or norepinephrine most returns to the neuron via reuptake. MAOA breaks it down to prevent excessive accumulation. Low activity of MAOA is linked to aggression in people who had troubled childhood experiences. It is an X-linked gene - more men have low-activity of MAOA.

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17
Q

What is the startle reflex?

A

When a loud noise goes to the cochlear nucleus in the medulla, signals then pons that commands the tensing of muscles, especially the neck muscles (startle reflex). The startle reflex is more vigourous if you are already tense. Startle reflex is related directly to anxiety levels.

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18
Q

What do animal reflexes teach us about the startle reflex?

A

Present a light or a sound with a shock. When animal has learned the association they show light before a loud noise and then measure the startle response. Startle response is much more rapid when associated with fear of pain.

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19
Q

What role does the amygdala play in the shock reflex?

A

The amygdala gets much input from pain fibres, vision and hearing. Different paths through the amygdala are responsible for fear of pain, fear of predators and fear of aggressive members of own species. Other parts control changes in breathing, avoidance of unsafe places, learning which particular places are safest and freezing in fear of danger.

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20
Q

What does the output from the amygdala do?

A

The output from the amygdala to the hypothalamus controls autonomic fear responses. The amygdala has axons to the PFC that control approach and avoidance responses. Axons to the thalamus direct attention towards important stimuli. Axons also extend from the amygdala to the midbrain which connects to the pons controlling startle responses.

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21
Q

What controls long-term emotional arousal?

A

Long-term emotional arousal depends on the area called the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. The stria terminalis is a set of axons that connect this nucleus to the amygdala.

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22
Q

What is Urbach-Wiethe disease?

A

A build-up of calcium in the amygdala that causes damage to it. Results are impaired processing of emotional information and what to fear.

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23
Q

What is panic disorder?

A

Frequent periods of anxiety and occassional attacks of rapid breathing, increased HR, sweating and trembling.

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24
Q

What brain structures are linked to panic disorder?

A

Abnormalities in the hypothalamus, decreased activity of GABA and increased levels of orexin (associated with wakefulness and activity).

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25
Q

What is post-traumatic stress disorder?

A

PTSD is frequent distressing recollections and nightmares, avoidance of reminders of it and vigorous reactions to noises and other stimuli.

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26
Q

What brain structure is impacted by PTSD?

A

PTSD results in smaller hippocampus.

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27
Q

What are the types of anxiolytic drugs?

A

Anti-anxiety drugs are benzodiazepines. There are diazepam (Valium), chlordiazepoxide (Librium) and alprazolam (Xanax).

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28
Q

How do benzodiazepines work?

A

They bind to the GABAA receptors. At the centre of the GABAA receptors is a chloride channel. When open it allows chloride ions to cross the membrane into the neuron, hyperpolarising the cell (the synapse is inhibitory). Surrounding the chloride channel are 4 units each containing one or more sites sensitive to GABA. Benzodiazepines bind to additional sites on 3/4 units. When a benzodiazepine molecule attaches it bends the receptor so that GABA binds more easily.

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29
Q

What areas of the brain do benzodiazepines work?

A

Exert effects in the amygdala, hypothalamus and midbrain.

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30
Q

What are the side effects of benzodiazepines?

A

There is a possibility of addiction, sleepiness, block epileptic convulsions and impair memory.

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31
Q

How does alcohol affect anxiety?

A

Effects of GABA receptors are responsible for anti-anxiety and intoxicating effects. Promotes flow of chloride ions through GABAA receptors.

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32
Q

What does propranolol do?

A

Blocks reconsolidation of memories. Can be used in treatment of PTSD>

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33
Q

What does a threat to the body do?

A

It activates a generalised response to stress called the general adaptation syndrome, due to activity in the adrenal glands.

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34
Q

What is the first stage of the general adaptation syndrome?

A

Alarm - adrenal glands release epinephrine which stimulates the sympathetic nervous system to be ready for action. Also, adrenal glands release cortisol which increases blood glucose, providing extra energy and aldosterone which maintains blood salt and blood volume.

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35
Q

What is the second stage of the general adaptation syndrome?

A

Resistance - sympathetic response declines but adrenal glands continue secreting cortisol to allow body to maintain alertness.

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36
Q

What happens during the third stage of the general adaptation syndrome?

A

After intense prolonged stress - exhaustion - individual is tired and inactive nervous and immune systems have no energy to sustain them.

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37
Q

What does stress do?

A

It activates the sympathetic nervous system and the HPA axis. Activation of the hypothalamus induces the anterior pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol which enhances metabolic activity, elevates blood levels of sugar and alertness. HPA axis reacts more slowly than autonomic system but dominates response to prolonged stressors. Prolonged stress impacts the immune system and memory.

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38
Q

What is the HPA axis?

A

The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal cortex axis.

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39
Q

What is an autoimmune disease?

A

The body attacks normal cells.

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40
Q

What are leukocytes?

A

White blood cells

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41
Q

What are b-cells and what do they do?

A

Found in bone marrow - secrete antibodies that attach to particular antigens and attacks the cell.

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42
Q

What are t-cells?

A

mature in the thymus gland - attack intruders directly.

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43
Q

What are natural killer cells?

A

Attack tumor cells and cells affected with viruses.

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44
Q

How does the body respond to infections?

A

Leukocytes produce cytokines that combat infections. It also stimulates the vagus nerve and triggers the release of prostaglandins that cross the blood-brain barrier and stimulates the hypothalamus to produce fever, sleepiness, lack of energy and appetite and loss of sex drive.

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45
Q

What does stress do?

A

It causes the nervous system to activate the immune system to increase the production of natural killer cells and secretion of cytokines. Elevated cytokine level helps to combat infections but trigger postaglandins that reach the hypothalamus. This can cause symptoms such as sleepiness, decreased appetite and elevated body temperature. Exposure to stress can impact on the hippocampus, reducing levels of dendrites and impairing memories dependent on the hippocampus.

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46
Q

Benzodiazepines bind to the GABA-C receptor. T or F

A

False

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47
Q

If a treatment suddenly lowered your serotonin level:

A

we could not predict how and when your behavior would change.

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48
Q

The limbic system consists of structures that are believed to be important for which kind of responses?

A

emotional

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49
Q

Increased fear, anxiety, or panic is related to increased activity of ____ and decreased activity of ____.

A

CCK; GABA

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50
Q

Activity in the left hemisphere is associated with:

A

behavioral activation.

51
Q

A person with a history of violence would most likely react to a diet low in tryptophan by becoming:

A

violent

52
Q

Findings from people with pure autonomic failure suggest that:

A

autonomic output is important for experiencing emotion.

53
Q

When people were forced to smile, by clenching a pen between their teeth, how did they rate a cartoon they were reading?

A

funnier than if they were not forced to smile

54
Q

Occasional brief periods of stress:

A

boost the activity of the immune system.

55
Q

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that is responsible for preparing the body for intense, vigorous, emergency activity is the:

A

sympathetic nervous system.

56
Q

In the revised James-Lange theory of emotion, what occurs first?

A

cognitive appraisal

57
Q

Investigators have found that individuals who suffer prefrontal cortex damage:

A

often make bad decisions.

58
Q

Alcohol decreases anxiety by:

A

promoting chloride flow at the GABA-A receptor complex

59
Q

The amygdala is important only for the expression of fear.

T or F

A

False

60
Q

Which is more characteristic of the body’s response to chronic stress than the response to short-term stress?

A

secretions of cortisol

61
Q

The most commonly used anti-anxiety drugs are the benzodiazepines. T or F

A

True

62
Q

A group of forebrain structures that appear to be critical for emotion are known as the:

A

limbic system.

63
Q

The common measure of fear or anxiety that is popular because it can be used with non-humans as well as humans is:

A

The startle response

64
Q

Emotions are important for decision making. T or F

A

True

65
Q

According to the James-Lange theory of emotion:

A

emotional intensity is a function of physiological responses.

66
Q

The autonomic nervous system is divided into two parts; the ____ nervous system (which prepares the body for emergency action), and the ____ nervous system (which calms the body).

A

sympathetic; parasympathetic

67
Q

Brief activation of the sympathetic nervous system can enhance activity of the immune system. T or F

A

True

68
Q

According to a number of animal studies, under which of the following conditions is the probability of violent behavior greatest?

A

low serotonin turnover

69
Q

According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, we experience physiological changes first and then label these changes as an emotion. T or F

A

True

70
Q

Most of the vigorous emotional behaviors we observe in animals fall into the categories of attack and escape. T or F

A

True

71
Q

A scientist would be most likely to use which of the following when attempting to obtain an objective measure of emotion?

A

Measures of the sympathetic nervous system response

72
Q

Experiencing nightmares about a traumatic event, avoiding reminders of it, and exaggerated startle response are symptoms of:

A

PTSD

73
Q

Recognition of an angry expression is faster when the face is directed ____, and a fearful expression is faster if it is directed ____.

A

toward you, to the side

74
Q

Psychologists typically define emotion in terms of three components.
T or F

A

True

75
Q

One could reduce anxiety by:

A

Blocking CCK

76
Q

Children with a rare condition called ____ are unable to move their facial muscles to make a smile.

A

Mobius syndrome

77
Q

A person with a history of depression would most likely react to a diet low in tryptophan by becoming:

A

depressed

78
Q

Startle responses are greater when a person is:

A

anxious

79
Q

People with damage to either the prefrontal cortex or the amygdala show difficulties processing emotional information. T or F

A

True

80
Q

According to research, the human amygdala responds most strongly when people are looking at:

A

Emotional expressions

81
Q

The sympathetic nervous system is to ____ as the parasympathetic nervous system is to ____.

A

Emergencies; relaxation

82
Q

People are given moral dilemmas, such as whether it is all right to kill one person in order to save five others. The people most likely to make the “cold, calculating” decision that these acts are okay are people who have suffered brain damage that impairs which of these?

A

Emotions

83
Q

The right hemisphere seems to be more responsive to emotional stimuli than the left hemisphere. T or F

A

True

84
Q

A drug that facilitates transmission at GABA-A synapses has what effect on behavior?

A

Decreases anxiety

85
Q

Stress activates two systems. One is the:

A

HPA axis, which becomes increasingly important with prolonged stressors.

86
Q

A person who has developed a tolerance to alcohol is likely to show a cross-tolerance to:

A

benzodiazepines.

87
Q

The immune system’s way of telling the brain that the body is ill is by way of:

A

cytokines.

88
Q

The Behavioral Activation System is associated with:

A

low to moderate arousal, tendency to approach new objects, and pleasant mood.

89
Q

A variety of studies indicate that anxiety is increased by the transmitters ____ and ____.

A

alprazolam, cholecystokinin

90
Q

Looking at a picture of people showing emotional expressions causes the greatest activity in the:

A

Amygdala

91
Q

The GABA-A receptor complex controls the flow of which ion across the membrane?

A

Chloride

92
Q

People with amygdala damage have trouble identifying fear expressions. How could we improve their ability to recognize fear?

A

Change where they focus their eyes.

93
Q

Across studies involving amygdala damage, the general conclusion seems to be that the amygdala is important for:

A

focusing attention on emotional stimuli.

94
Q

Amygdala activation to angry and fearful expressions suggests that the amygdala responds most strongly:

A

when emotional interpretation is unclear.

95
Q

Depression is linked to ____ serotonin and aggressive behavior is linked to ____ serotonin.

A

low; low

96
Q

A combination of benzodiazepines and alcohol should be avoided because:

A

each magnifies the effects of the other.

97
Q

The precursor for the synthesis of serotonin is:

A

tryptophan.

98
Q

Benzodiazepine tranquilizers affect GABA synapses by:

A

facilitating binding of GABA to its receptors.

99
Q

The Behavioral Inhibition System is associated with:

A

increased attention and arousal, decreased action, and fear or disgust.

100
Q

Output from the amygdala to the ____ modifies approach and avoidance responses.

A

prefrontal cortex

101
Q

A search for the happiness center in the brain is unlikely to be successful because:

A

brain areas associated with particular emotions vary considerably.

102
Q

What is the relevance of pure autonomic failure to the study of emotions?

A

People with pure autonomic failure do not react to events with changes in heart rate or other autonomic functions. They report still having emotional experiences but they do not feel them as strongly.

103
Q

How did researchers get people to smile or frown without using those words?

A

They got people to smile by telling them to hold a pen between their teeth. They got people to frown by attaching golf tees to their eyebrows and telling them to keep the two tees touching each other.

104
Q

According to Lisa Barrett Feldman, why is it difficult to develop a scientific consensus about any theory of emotion?

A

Emotion is a socially constructed category that people find useful, but it does not correspond to any category that exists in nature.

105
Q

What evidence challenges the idea that we identify people’s emotions by their facial expressions?

A

Given a photo of spontaneous facial expression, people usually see more than one emotion and often don’t see the emotion described by the person whose face was shown. Also, in everyday life we identify someone’s emotion by a combination of cues, including posture, context, gestures, and tone of voice.

106
Q

If brain damage impairs someone’s emotions, what happens to the person’s decision making?

A

After brain damage that impairs emotion, people make impulsive decisions, evidently because they do not quickly imagine how bad a decision might make them feel.

107
Q

What is one reason why testosterone levels correlate only weakly with human aggression levels?

A

Aggression depends on the ratio of testosterone to cortisol, not to testosterone alone.

108
Q

If we want to know how much serotonin the brain has been releasing, what should we measure?

A

We can measure the concentration of 5-HIAA, a serotonin metabolite, in the CSF or other bodily fluids. The more 5-HIAA, the more serotonin that has been released and presumably resynthesises.

109
Q

Given that monkeys with low serotonin turnover pick many fights and in most cases die young, what keeps natural selection form eliminating the genes for low serotonin turnover?

A

Although most monkeys with low serotonin turnover die young, many of the survivors achieve a dominant status that enables them to get more of the food and to reproduce more frequently. Monkeys with high serotonin turnover survive, but at the cost of accepting a low status.

110
Q

What relationship did Caspi et al. report between the enzyme MAO-A and antisocial behaviour?

A

Overall people with genes for high or low production of MAO-A do not differ significantly in their probability of antisocial behaviour. However, among those who suffered serious maltreatment during childhood, people with lower levels of the enzyme showed higher rates of antisocial behaviour.

111
Q

What brain mechanism enables the startle reflex to be so fast?

A

Loud noises activate a path from the cochlea to cells in the pons that trigger a tension of neck muscles.

112
Q

How could a researcher use the startle reflect to determine whether some stimulus causes fear?

A

Present the stimulus before giving a loud noise. If the stimulus increases the startle reflex beyond its usual level, then the stimulus produced fear.

113
Q

What evidence indicates that the amygdala activity corresponds to the effort needed for interpreting emotional information?

A

The amygdala responds more strongly to a fearful face directed at the viewer, rather than a similar face to the side. People usually find it easier to understand a fearful face looking to the side.

114
Q

What can we predict about someone if we know the strength of that person’s amygdala response to upsetting pictures or loud noises?

A

People with a highly reactive amygdala are likely to report many negative emotional experiences during a day, to show strong responses to stressful experiences, and to favour strong reliance on military and police power.

115
Q

Why do people with amygdala damage have trouble recognising expressions of fear?

A

They focus their vision on the nose and mouth. Expressions of fear depend almost entirely on the eyes.

116
Q

What evidence indicates that a smaller than average hippocampus makes people more vulnerable to PTSD?

A

On the average, PTSD victims have a smaller than average hippocampus. For those who have a monozygotic twin, the twin also has a smaller than average hippocampus, even if he or she does not have PTSD.

117
Q

What would be the effect of benzodiazepines on someone who had no GABA.

A

Benzodiazepines facilitate the effects of GABA, so a person without GABA would have no response to benzodiazepines.

118
Q

Why is extinction more effective a few minutes after a brief reminder of the original learning?

A

The reminder brings the representation of the learning into a labile state from which it can be reconsolidated or extinguished.

119
Q

Name three hormones that the adrenal glands release in the alarm stage of the body’s response to stress.

A

Epinephrine, cortison and aldosterone.

120
Q

What kind of cell releases cytokines?

A

Leukocytes, which are part of the immune system release cytokines.

121
Q

What changes do prostaglandins stimulate?

A

Prostaglandins stimulate the hypothalamus to produce fever, decreased hunger, decreased sex drive, and increased sleepiness.

122
Q

How do the effects of stress mimic the effects of illness?

A

Stress increases the release of cytokines, which communicate with the hypothalamus via the vagus nerve and prostaglandins. They hypothalamus reacts with the same responses it uses to combat illnesses, such as inactivity and loss of appetite.

123
Q

How does prolonged stress damage the hippocampus?

A

Stress increases the release of cortisol, which enhances metabolic activity through the body. When neurons in the hippocampus have high metabolic activity, they become more vulnerable to damage by toxins or overstimulation.

Brain and Behaviour (10 decks)

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