Chapter 11

Question 1

How is energy extracted from food?

Answer 1

via oxidation with carbon dioxide and water as the product

Question 2

What are the 4 stages of energy extraction?

Answer 2

1. metabolic fuels are hydrolyzed in the GI tract to glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids and absorbed
2. building blocks degraded by various pathways in tissues to common metabolic intermediate=acetyl CoA

–energy in chemical bonds of acetyl-CoA and reducing NAD to NADH and FAD to FADH2

3. citric acid cycle oxidizes acetyl-CoA to CO2

–energy released is conserved by reducing NAD to NADH and FAD to FADH2

4. oxidative phosphorylation: energy of NADH and FADH2 is released via ETC anx used by ATP synthase to make ATP

–requires O2

Question 3

What is the difference between type I and type II diabetes?

Answer 3

type I: beta cells don’t secrete enough insulin

type II: insulin receptor problem

–in obesity, there’s not enough of the insulin receptor put on the membrane

Question 4

When do glucose levels peak and reach normal after a meal?

Answer 4

reach max at 45 minutes

back to normal at 90 minutes

normal concentration of glucose = 5 mM

Question 5

How do glucose levels go back to normal?

Answer 5

inuslin and insulin independent cells (brain and erythrocytes)

Question 6

What is the general pathway of extracting energy from metabolic fuels?

Answer 6

Question 7

How is energy stored in the cell?

Answer 7

1) ATP: circulating form of energy; formed in catabolic pathways by phosphorylation of ADP
2) excess energy from diet is stored as fatty acids–reduced polymer of acetyl-CoA– and glycogen–polymer of glucose
3) proteins can also be mobilized for energy in prolonged fast

Question 8

What is insulin and what are it’s target tissues?

Answer 8

anabolic hormone that promotes fuel storage

opposed by glucagon and epinephrine, cortisol, and growth hormone

–liver, muscle and adipose tissue

Question 9

What is glucagon and what are it’s target tissues ?

Answer 9

responds rapidly to decreased blood glucose levels

–promotes synthesis and release of glucose into circulation

–target tissues= skeletal muscle, adipose tissue and liver

Question 10

How are anabolic and catabolic pathways controlled?

Answer 10

1) allosteric inhibitors and activators of rate limiting enzymes
2) control of gene expression by insulin and glucagon
3) phsophorylation (glucagon) and dephosphorylation (insulin) of rate limiting enzymes

Question 11

What happens during well-fed (absorptive) states?

Answer 11

immediately after a meal:

• blood glucose level rises and stimulates the release of insulin
• insulin promotes glycogen synthesis in liver and muscle
• after glycogen stores are full, liver converts excess glucose to fatty acids and triglycerides
• insulin promotes triglyceride syntehsis in adipose tissue and protein synthesis in muscle

–insulin promotes glucose entry into adipose tissue and muscle

–most energy needs of liver met by oxidative of excess amino acids

–brain and RBC are insenstiive to insulin; derive energy from oxidizing glucose to CO2 and water in well fed and normal fasting states

Question 12

What energy do red blood cells utilize?

Answer 12

under all conditions, red blood cells use glucose anaerobically for all energy needs

Question 13

What happens during postabsorptive states?

Answer 13

-glucagon and epinephrine levels rise during overnight fast

–in liver, glycogen degradation and release of glucose into blood are stimulated by glucagon

–hepatic gluconeogenesis is stimulated by glucagon; slower than glycogenolysis

–release of amino acids from skeletal muscle and fatty acids from adipose tissue stiulated by decrease in insulin and increase in epinephrine

–amino acids and faty acids are taken up by liver, where amino acids provide carbon skeletons and oxidation of fatty acids provide ATP necessary for gluconeogenesis

Question 14

How is glucose transported?

Answer 14

polar so can’t enter cell by itself so uses GLUT transporters

–GLUT1,3: low Km, zero order kinetics; enters at steady pace; red blood cell and brain

–GLUT2: high Km, 1st order kinetics; liver

–insulin turns on GLUT4 at hormone level (via PI3K) in muscle and fat cells–insulin increases Vmax of GLUT4

–AMP actvated kinase only turns on GLUT4 in muscle

–as ATP decreases in muscle, AMP tells GLUT4 to go to the membrane

Question 15

How are triglycerides transported?

Answer 15

can’t go through membrane becuase nonpolar

–so LPL is an enzyme in the adipose tissue membrane that breaks it down to fatty acid and glycerol

–insulin turns on LPL at gene level

Question 16

How do you know if someone is starving?

Answer 16

increased levels of alanine in the bloodstream

Question 17

What is glucose sparing?

Answer 17

keton bodies converted to acetyl-CoA and blood glucose breakdown because RBC can only use glucose as fuel

Question 18

What is the difference between muscle and liver during postabsorptive states?

Answer 18

muscle breakdown glycogen for itself

liver breakdowns glycogen for other organs

Question 19

What happens when glycogen stores run out during postabsorptive states?

Answer 19

liver turn ons gluconeogenesis

source of C=lactate/pyruvate

dominant=glucogenic AA–most protein in muscle; glycerol

Question 20

What is the function of HSL during postabsorptive states?

Answer 20

converts fat t oglycerol

becuase only the liver can deal with glycerol

Question 21

How many kcal/g are the major energy sources?

Answer 21

Ketone bodies, carbohydrates, protein=4 kcal/gm

fat= 9 kcal/gm

alcohol = 7 kcal/gm

Question 22

How much of the energy sources should you have each day?

Answer 22

200 kcal diet

58% carbohydrate (1,218 kcal; 305 g)

12% protein (252 kcal; 63 g)

30% fat (630 kcal; 70 g)

Question 23

What happens during a prolonged fast (starvation)?

Answer 23

glucagon and epinephrine elevated

–lipolysis: rapid, results in excess acetyl-CoA that is used for ketone synthesis

–thus, levels of lipids and ketones increased in blood

–muscle uses fatty acids as major fuel

–brain adapts to using ketones for some of its energy needs (2/3)

–which diminishes amount of protein that needs to be degraded to support gluconeogenesis

–no energy storage form for protein (becuase each protein has specific function)

–RBC (and renal medullary cells): have few, if any, mitochondria so depend on glucose for energy

Question 24

What are the preferred fuels in well fed and fasting states in the organs?

Answer 24

Question 25

What is the role of the liver in energy metabolism?

Answer 25

maintain a constant level of blood glucose and to synthesize ketones when excess fatty acids are being oxidized

AFTER A MEAL: liver extracts excess glucose and uses it to replenish glycogen stores; remaining is converted to acetyl CoA and used for fatty acid syntehsis

INSULIN: stimulates glycogen syntehsis and fatty acid synthesis in the liver after a meal

fatty acids converted to triglycerides and released into blood as VLDL

WELL FED: most of energy is derived from oxidation of excess amino acids

BETWEEN MEALS; PROLONGED FAST: liver releases glucose

increase in glucagon: promotes glycogen degradation and gluconeogensis

lactate, glycerol, and amino acids provide carbon skeleton for glucose synthesis

Question 26

What is the role of adipose tisuse in energy metabolism?

Answer 26

AFTER A MEAL: elevated insulin sitmulates glucose uptake by adipose tissue

insulin stimulates fatty acid release from VLDL and chylomicron triglycerides

lipoprotien lipase: enzyme in capillary bed is induced by insulin

fatty acids released from lipoportiens are taken up by adipose tissue and re-esterified to tiglyceride for storage

glycerol phosphate required for triglyceride syntehsis comes from glucose metabolized in adipocytes

insulin: suppress released of fatty acids from adipocytes

FASTING STATE: decrease in insulin; increase in epinephrine activates hormone sensitive lipase in fat cells–fatty acids released into circulation

Question 27

What is the role of resting skeletal muscle in energy metabolism?

Answer 27

major fuelds: glucose and fatty acids

major consumer of fuel

AFTER MEAL: insulin causes skeletal muscle to take up glucose to replenish glycogen stores and amino acids are used for protein syntehsis

–excess glucose and amino acids acna be oxidized for energy

FASTING STATE: resting muscle uses fatty acids derived from free fatty acids in blood

–ketones may be used if fasting state is prolonged

Question 28

What is the role of active skeletal muscle in energy metabolism?

Answer 28

stores of glycogen and some trilycerides

blood glucose and free fatty acids can also be used

FAST TWITCH: high capacity for anaerobic glycolysis; quick to fatigue

SLOW TWITCH: well vascularized and primarily oxidative

short bursts of high intesnsity exercise are supported by anaerobic glycosis drawing on stored muscle glycogen

moderately high, continuous exercise, oxidation of glucose and fatty acids are important

after 1-3 hours of continuous exercise: muscle glycogen stores depleted and intesnity of exercise decline to rate that can be suported by oxidation of fatty acids

Question 29

What is the role of cardiac muscle in energy metabolism?

Answer 29

fetal life cardiac muscle: glucose as energy source

postnatal period: beta oxidation of fatty acids

–ketones present during prolonged fasting are also used

–failing heart: glucose oxidation increases and beta-oxidation falls

Question 30

What is the role of brain in energy metabolism?

Answer 30

glucose is primary fuel

glucose uptake into brain via GLUT1 and 3 transproters

glycogen levels in brain are minor; normal function depends on continuous glucose supply from bloodstream

hypoglycemic donition: hyptehalamus sense fall in blood glucose level and release of glucagon and epinephrine are triggered

–fatyt acids can’t cross BBB so not used

BETWEEN MEALS: brain relies on blood glucose supplied by hepatic glycogenolysis or gluconeogenesis

PROLONGED FAST: brain gains capacity to use ketones for energy