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PSYCH104 Terminology > Chapter 11 > Flashcards

Chapter 11 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

An internal state of physiological equilibrium or stability.

  • Delicate balance ensures survival.
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2
Q

What is drive?

A

An internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities to reduce the tension.

  • Pushes the organism into action.
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3
Q

What are the elements and roles in homeostasis?

A
  1. Sensors
    Detect changes in the internal state
  2. Response System
    Acts to restore equilibrium
  3. Control Centre
    Gets information from sensors; triggers a response.

Cycle moves as and repeats as:
Control Centre > Response System Acts > Internal State > Sensors

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4
Q

What are factors of modern drive theories?

A
  1. Homeostasis
    Which can be applied to thirst, hunger, body temperature, weight, or sleep and so on.
  2. Drive Theory
    Less influential as people have behaved contrary to such predictions such as horror movies which must trigger a fearful (negative) response compared to diets which work against the hunger response.
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5
Q

What is the definition of an incentive theory?

A

An external goal that has the capacity to motivate behaviour. This provides a “pull” towards a goal rather than a more forceful “push” movement.
Originally associated with drive theory, these are both parts of biological drive reduction.
Ex. Food is an incentive because it reduces hunger.

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6
Q

What are some characteristics of modern incentive theories?

A

Focus on the pull of external stimuli even without a biological need, such as finishing a meal but wanting dessert.
Stimuli also have an incentive value, if there is a higher value, you desire it more.
This can be applied to examples such as drug abuse.

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7
Q

What about incentive reacting with expectancy?

A

People often respond differently to the same incentive, which are close or related to classical conditioning.

Expectancy theories employ the cognitive perspective.

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8
Q

What is expectancy theory really?

A

Known as “expectancy x value” theory, goal directed behaviours are driven by:

  1. Strength of that expectation of that behaviour leading towards a goal or tangible reward
  2. Value the person places on a goal being the incentive value
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9
Q

What is the expectancy theory equation?

A

Motivation = expectancy x incentive value

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10
Q

Applying expectancy theory, what are some examples that relate to grades and studying?

A

The following are examples of belief in the strength of studying versus how high grades may be.

High x high = high
High x low = mid
Low x high = mid

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11
Q

What are two types of motivation cognitive theorists define?

A
  1. Intrinsic motivation
    Performing the activity for the sake of performing, such as drawing something for the act of drawing.
    Or cleaning your room for a neat workspace.
  2. Extrinsic motivation
    Performing an activity to obtain an external reward or to avoid punishment.
    Or cleaning your room in order to not get grounded.
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12
Q

What is evolution?

A

Change in the distribution of genes in an interbreeding population over time.

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13
Q

What is natural selection?

A

The process by which evolution occurs; characteristics that increase fitness are preserved in the gene pool and become more common in the population.

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14
Q

What is psychodynamic theory?

A

A theory proposed by Freud that explains that most behaviours come from unconscious impulses or psychological defences.
- Impulses want to be expressed
- Defences want to keep impulses at bay

This conflict produces energy that must be released, which can be funnelled into socially acceptable outputs.

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15
Q

What are some strong drives for Freud’s psychodynamic theory?

A

The strongest drives are both sex and aggression. For example, someone with strong aggressive impulses would have a career they can funnel that energy into.

Ex. athlete, politician, lawyer

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16
Q

What are characteristics of modern psychodynamic theories?

A

Instead of Freud’s dual-instinct model:
Modern theories emphasize the role of unconscious motive and tensions in addition to conscious processes, as stress can be a motive for self-esteem or social belonging.

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17
Q

Who was Abraham Maslow?

A

A humanistic theorist that described how other perspectives ignored the motivation of striving for personal growth and self betterment.
Two categories of needs included:
1. Deficiency Needs: Concerned with physical and social survival
2. Growth Needs: Unique to humans; push us to develop potential aside from survival.
+ Perhaps more intelligently aligned values

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18
Q

Explain Abraham Maslow’s need hierarchy?

A

Deficiency and growth needs were both arranged on a need hierarchy, with deficiency needs located by the bottom and growth needs at the top.

The idea is to work through each step as goals. Once you satisfy one type of need, you can move on to the next.

Self-actualization is the end goal.

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19
Q

What is Abraham Maslow’s need hierarchy structure?

A

Bottom to top:
1. Physiological needs such as food and drink
2. Safety needs like security and psychological safety
3. Belongingness and love needs like affiliation, affection, and acceptance
4. Esteem needs like approval and recognition
5. Cognitive needs like knowledge and understanding
6. Aesthetic needs like beauty and symmetry
7. Self actualization

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20
Q

What are some criticisms of Abraham Maslow’s need hierarchy of self actualization?

A

Critiques included that the format can be much different for different people, as in some people may not similarly prioritize certain needs and may “skip” stages.

For example as physiological needs such as food are at the bottom of the hierarchy while aesthetic needs are second to the top, an individual may eat less or starve themselves or go on a diet in order to achieve the other.

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21
Q

What is metabolism?

A

The rate at which the body uses energy in kcalories. The basal resting metabolism includes energy that is required for base cell operation. This is about 2/3 of regular energy use.

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22
Q

What are some misconceptions about the physiological state?

A
  • Eating is not necessarily linked to immediate energy needs. We don’t eat because we are low on energy and we don’t stop because we have enough energy
  • There are homeostatic mechanisms that try to prevent our bodies from running low on energy
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23
Q

What is the set point in homeostatic mechanisms?

A

The set point is the biologically determined physiological standard around which fat mass is regulated. These can alter energy utilization and hunger to return us to said “set point”.
As time passes, framing is closer to a “settling point” as changes in lifestyle can shift the set point such as exercise, injury, or disabilities.

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24
Q

What are short term signals?

A

Signals that the body gives that may be short in lifespan or duration such as hunger, thirst, satiety, or even sleep and energy.

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25
What are long-term signals?
Signals that adjust over time that might adjust appetite, metabolism to balance out over or under eating from short term signals. For example, the metabolism can be based off of body fat.
26
What are some signals that start a meal?
Hunger pangs, glucose, ghrelin, neuropeptide Y, cholecystokinin (CCK).
27
What is glucose as a signal?
A simple sugar that serves as an immediate source of energy. When available, it is the preferred energy source. When levels are low, the brain gets priority access to the glucose. The signal is the pattern of increase and decrease in blood glucose levels.
28
How does the level of glucose in the bloodstream change over time?
Glucose levels: 1. Peak following a meal as food is broken down — a portion of glucose is sent for storage in the liver and fat cells. 2. Drop over time because cells use circulating glucose 3. Rise when receptors in the hypothalamus and liver detect low levels and trigger conversion of stored nutrients back into glucose for use. This cycle may generate feelings of hunger.
29
What is ghrelin? Where is it secreted from and what are the activity levels like?
A peptide that increases feelings of hunger and leads to eating behaviours. - Secreted by the stomach and small intestine - Levels highest before a meal - Drop after eating
30
What is neuropeptide Y? Where is it secreted from?
A peptide that stimulates food intake, especially carbohydrates. It is secreted by the hypothalamus and increases hunger, motivation to eat, and might affect the size of meal we decide to eat.
31
What is cholecystokinin (CCK) and it’s use?
CCK is released by the small intestine into the bloodstream as food arrives in the stomach. It sends satiety signals to the brain and decreases feelings of hunger while reducing food intake. Stomach and intestinal distention can also send signals as nerves signal the brain of stretching.
32
What is leptin?
A hormone secreted by fat/adipose cells. More fat cells = more leptin. This signals the brain to decrease appetite and increase energy expenditure, but genetically obese mice do not produce leptin.
33
Summarize the signals, their source, and their use relating to hunger.
Glucose levels are monitored by the hypothalamus, a drop of levels signals hunger. CCK is released by the intestines which decreases hunger. Leptin is secreted by fat cells which decreases hunger in the long-term. Neuropeptide Y is secreted by neurons in the PVN and it increases hunger. Ghrelin is secreted by the stomach and small intestine, it increases hunger.
34
What do some structures in the hypothalamus complete?
Regulating hunger, thirst, sexual arousal, and body temperature.
35
What is the lateral hypothalamus (LH) involved in?
May be involved in stimulating eating.
36
What is the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) involved in?
May influence stopping eating.
37
What role does the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) play?
Receptors for various neurotransmitters, stimulate or reduce appetite long or short term.
38
What role does neuropeptide Y do?
It is an appetite stimulant.
39
What is the behaviour perspective when it comes to hunger?
Hunger and eating can be positively reinforced by good tastes and negatively reinforced by hunger reduction.
40
What is the cognitive perspective when it comes to hunger?
Come to expect that eating will be enjoyable, with an incentive or motivation to eat. Beliefs, memories, habits, and attitudes towards food may also be factors.
41
What are some environmental aspects of hunger?
What we see, including beauty standards surrounding us that may pressurize us to change our eating habits. A pressure for thinness, self-perception, and sex differences in standards and perception along with our own goals for ourselves that may come with that.
42
Other environmental and sensory aspects of hunger include?
Sights, smells, thoughts of food. Portion size and presence of others, food availability, and cultural norms surrounding eating. We tend to be more sensitive to these than biological urges.
43
What are factors involved in obesity?
While there are some genetic factors, and while some genes influence basal metabolism, environmental factors are much more influential which concern hunger or stressors.
44
What are emotions?
Mental states or feelings associated with our evaluation of our experiences. These include positive or negative feelings that can affect our personal states. It involves a pattern of cognitive, physiological, and behavioural reactions. This can integrate with motivation and we may react as goals are gratified, threatened, or frustrated.
45
How does emotion adapt and affect our behaviour?
Emotions direct attention. Negative emotions or narrow attention may activate our physiological activation while positive emotions can make us become more open, broaden our thinking, exploration, and learning of some skills. Emotions can also facilitate social communication as it gives us information about our internal states, and can influence others’ behaviour toward us.
46
What are some forms or methods of emotion-eliciting stimuli?
This can be internal or external, or can be influenced by innate biological factors. - Newborn infants can respond emotionally - Adults primed to respond to evolutionary significant stimuli - Can be influenced by learning as previous experiences can affect our current emotional experiences
47
What is cognitive appraisal?
Involved in all aspects. It allows for interpretation and evaluation of our sensory stimuli, can influence our expressions and behaviours, while people may also have different reactions to the same events. These may also be affected by culture.
48
What are physiological responses?
Interactions between the cortical and subcortical structures involving the hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus. Destruction or stimulation of these parts can produce aggression. The cerebral cortex — or the prefrontal cortex also has the ability to regulate emotion.
49
What is the dual pathway of emotion?
The thalamus sends sensory input along two independent neural pathways. 1. One directly to the amygdala which is responsible for emotional and behavioural reactions 2. One to the cerebral cortex for conscious interpretation
50
What is hemispheric activation related to our emotions?
Evidence for left hemisphere activation underlying positive emotions. Evidence for right hemisphere activation underlying some negative emotions. Autonomic responses like polygraphs can be involved.
51
What are expressive behaviours?
Observable displays of our emotion that allow us to infer emotions of others, as in reading others’ emotions or reacting accordingly which may evoke sympathy. Evolutionarily, certain emotions are innate while some can be modified by learning.
52
What are some categories of emotions and their meanings?
1. Universal Emotions Have both positive and negative affect. 2. Basic Emotions Happiness, sadness, fear, disgust, anger, contempt, and surprise. Emotions that many across different cultures can recognize. 3. Subtle Emotions Influenced by culture, or derived from basic emotions.
53
What are instrumental behaviours?
Behaviours directed at achieving a goal. These can function as calls to action by enhancing performance for simple tasks, interfering with complex tasks. As complexity increases, arousal for maximum performance decreases.
54
What is the discrete emotions theory?
Humans experience a small number of distinct emotions even if they combine in complex ways. Such as: 1. Newborns smile during REM sleep 2. Adaptive significance of motor reactions to emotions such as disgust, fear, and anger 3. People recognize and generate the same emotional expressions across cultures.
55
How can discrete emotions theory affect our bodies?
Some primary emotions can be physiologically discerned such as heart rate increasing with negative emotions, and the digestive system slowing with fear. However: - Happiness and sadness look the same in brain scans - Multiple brain regions are active in all emotions
56
What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
Feedback from the body’s reaction to eliciting stimuli tells the brain that we are experiencing an emotion. Emotions may react from our interpretations of our body to stimuli.
57
Tangent of the James-Lange theory:
These reaction-based emotions off of what we perceive our reactions to be can widely differ. From our heart rate increasing due to fear, we may instead perceive this as attraction, excitement, or arousal. Dubbed misattribution of arousal.
58
What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
Experiencing emotions comes from signals from the thalamus sent to the cortex. Eliciting stimulus > Subcortical activity in thalamus >> Autonomic arousal and separately, conscious emotion
59
What is the two-factor theory of emotion?
Theory states that arousal and cognitive labelling based on situational cues drive experience of emotion. Physiological arousal tells us how strongly we feel while situational cues tell us what we are feeling.
60
What are some unconscious influences on emotion?
Subliminal exposure to positive and negative stimuli can bias mood. Meer exposure effect. Facial feedback hypothesis.
61
What is motivation?
A process that influences goal-directed behaviour. Based with direction, persistence, and vigour.
62
Views of motivation include (DIEPH):
Drive theories — seeking homeostasis Incentive theories — regulation by external stimuli Evolutionary theories — maximizing reproductive success Psychodynamic theories — impulses that want to be expressed Humanistic theories — striving for personal growth

PSYCH104 Terminology (3 decks)

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