Chapter 10: The Second Industrial Revolution and Globalization Flashcards
1
Q
How did the size, range of power, and complexity of machines change in the twentieth century?
A
They increased dramatically
2
Q
What new communications systems contributed to centralized control of business and government in the twentieth century?
A
The telegraph and the telephone
3
Q
What was a significant factor that contributed to the movement for mass education in the new technological era?
A
The necessity of training to live in the new technological era.
4
Q
Why was education needed in the twentieth century with respect to technological advancements?
A
To create and maintain equipment that was too complicated to operate without specialized knowledge.
5
Q
How did industrialization affect the economy and conflicts in the twentieth century?
A
The economy became global, and so did the conflicts.
6
Q
Which war saw Europe fall into conflict using a new generation of tactics and increasingly powerful weapons?
A
The Second World War.
7
Q
What were some of the significant technological advances seen during the Second World War?
A
Codes, aircraft, radar, and rockets.
8
Q
What was the ultimate weapon developed during the Second World War, and what was required to manufacture it?
A
The nuclear bomb; it required nations willing and able to devote significant industrial resources to the project.
9
Q
What motivated Europeans to explore and bring resources back to Europe during the era of colonialism?
A
Access to global resources.
10
Q
How did industrialization and changes in transportation affect the global marketplace in the twentieth century?
A
They created a global marketplace where industrial production and consumption spread from Europe and North America to the wider world.
11
Q
How is the start of the twentieth century characterized in relation to the First World War?
A
The start of the twentieth century is often seen as beginning with the end of the First World War.
12
Q
What was significant about the way the First World War was fought?
A
It was fought using twentieth-century weapons and nineteenth-century strategies.
13
Q
What did the First World War demonstrate about mass production and modern scientific and engineering concepts?
A
It demonstrated the power of mass production and the application of modern scientific and engineering concepts to the task of mass destruction.
14
Q
What global aspects of industry and politics were highlighted by the First World War?
A
The war demonstrated that industry and politics were global, as people and materials were moved around the world to fight.
15
Q
What new relationships were established among industrial countries after the war?
A
Britain was battered but still strong, France suffered territorial and economic damage, Germany lost territory and suffered economic and social damage, and Russia was undergoing the Russian Revolution.
16
Q
How was Germany affected by the war despite not being invaded?
A
Germany lost territory, suffered massive economic and social damage, and experienced a period of occupation by France.
17
Q
What significant political change was Russia undergoing during this period?
A
Russia was undergoing the Russian Revolution, which would eventually create a communist state and isolate the country for more than two generations.
18
Q
What actions did Japan take during and after the war?
A
Japan aided the British Navy in the Pacific, seized German territory in the region, and decided to invade China in 1937.
19
Q
What was the significance of Japan’s victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5?
A
It was a precursor to Japan’s decision to invade China in 1937, demonstrating its rising military power.
20
Q
Which country emerged as the strongest industrial power in the world after the First World War?
A
The United States emerged as the strongest industrial power in the world.
21
Q
What region became the technological and industrial hub of the world following the war?
A
The North Atlantic region.
22
Q
What has been the general outcome of major transformations in industry regarding employment?
A
New types of jobs and the expansion of commerce have generally created more jobs than were lost.
23
Q
How did people experience the periods of rapid industrial change?
A
It was not obvious to them that more jobs were being created; many were swept up in the changes and might not have immediately benefited.
24
Q
What has been the overall trend in the industrial world in terms of population and employment?
A
The trend has been towards greater populations and more jobs.
25
Give an example of individuals who did not benefit from technological changes in the industry.
The weaver who fell into poverty because of the mills or the ditch digger replaced by the steam shovel.
26
How did the lives of peasants in thirteenth-century Europe compare to those in the sixteenth century?
Their lives were little different from each other.
27
What significant changes in technology and lifestyle could a person born in 1890 have witnessed?
They could have traveled by horse-drawn carriage and lived to see a man walk on the Moon.
28
What was one of the long-term consequences of industrialization on population?
Larger populations could be supported, but the number of children per family started to decline in every industrial country.
29
How did the average age of mortality change due to industrialization?
The average age of mortality was slowly rising.
30
What contributed to the rising average age of mortality during industrialization?
The general increase in medical knowledge, availability of doctors, nurses, new drugs, hospitals, and social changes.
31
How did governments' roles in people's daily lives begin to change during industrialization?
Governments recognized that industrial capacity was important to national interest and there was political value in protecting the workforce.
32
What social movements began in the nineteenth century as a result of social activism?
The anti-slavery movement, opposition to child labor, women’s suffrage, alcohol prohibition, and medical care groups such as the Red Cross.
33
How did social reform movements of the nineteenth century often operate in terms of organization?
Some were linked with religious organizations, but increasingly they transcended particular groups and crossed national borders.
34
What was another aspect of the industrial social movements?
The organization of labor.
35
What did unions aim to improve in the industrial era?
Working conditions in dangerous mines, foundries, and factories.
36
What specific labor changes did unions campaign for?
They sought to reduce the length of the working day and week.
37
What was the Factory Act of 1847?
A British law that limited the hours of labor for women and children to ten hours a day.
38
What labor movement started in the 1860s?
Efforts to limit the hours of labor to eight hours a day or forty hours per week.
39
Who introduced an eight-hour day in 1914?
Henry Ford.
40
When did the eight-hour day become a general rule in the United States?
In 1938 with the creation of the Fair Labor Standards Act.
41
What were additional objectives of the labour movement besides reducing work hours?
Higher pay and less arbitrary treatment.
42
Which organizations struggled for the rights of workers through various means?
The American Federation of Labour and the Trade Union Congress in Britain.
43
What did the early labour movement combine?
Workers’ rights, social reform, and political action.
44
What was one political response to industrialization?
The rise of new political groups and the revision of old ones.
45
What groups were included under the term "socialists" in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?
Marxists, communists, social democrats, and anarchists.
46
What did unions tend to give up in the long run to avoid being labelled as dangerously radical?
Direct political and social action.
47
How are unions sometimes portrayed due to their opposition to new tools of production?
As Luddites.
48
Why do unions sometimes oppose the introduction of new tools of production?
Because those tools can eliminate jobs.
49
What effect did new technologies tend to have on employment?
They created new kinds of jobs, causing shifts in employment.
50
What was one significant shift in employment associated with the Industrial Revolution?
The move from agrarian to factory work.
51
How did the changes brought by new technologies often affect generations differently?
The changes often left one generation destitute but made following generations better off economically.
52
What is the technological paradox inherent in the labor-owner relationship in the age of automation?
As workers are removed from the production system by automation and robotics, many people may no longer be able to afford the products produced by automated factories.
53
What new types of jobs have been created by the shift to an automated and digital economy?
Jobs such as computer programmer.
54
What is one of the primary objectives of automation?
To reduce or eliminate the need for human workers in all sectors of the economy.
55
How did the children of displaced factory workers find work in the twentieth century?
They could find work as bus drivers and bank tellers.
56
Why are jobs such as bus drivers and bank tellers disappearing?
Due to the introduction of automated teller machines (ATMs) and self-driving vehicles.
57
What is required for jobs in the next tier, such as managers and computer programmers?
Significant education.
58
Why might education for higher-tier jobs not be affordable or available in many places?
The cost and availability of education can vary widely, exacerbating the distinction between winners and losers in the application of technology.
59
What is described as the most powerful of the invisible technologies?
Education.
60
How did most education occur throughout history?
It was informal and based on teaching children necessary skills to work and live in their local environment.
61
Who primarily received formal education historically?
The wealthy and a small scholarly class, generally made up of teachers/priests.
62
What were some of the earliest independent places of learning?
Plato's Academy (founded around 387 BCE) and the Pushpagiri school in India (founded around 200 CE).
63
When did universities and other places of higher education begin to appear?
In the tenth and eleventh centuries.
64
Who were the universities and madrasas designed for?
Students who had already mastered the skills of reading, writing, and basic mathematics.
65
Where was the first significant effort to create a state-funded elementary education system?
In Prussia.
66
Who decreed the establishment of a national education system in Prussia in 1763?
Frederick the Great.
67
What age group did Frederick the Great's decree target for education in Prussia?
Children aged five to twelve.
68
What was the name of the elementary education system established in Prussia?
The Volksschule, which means "peoples’ school" but actually meant compulsory elementary education.
69
What subjects were initially taught in the Volksschule?
Reading, writing, Christian education, and music.
70
What additional subjects were later added to the curriculum of the Volksschule?
Mathematics and history.
71
What opportunities did high scores on the final examination, the Abitur, provide for secondary students in Prussia?
They opened the door to university education or good jobs in business and the civil service.
72
When was the Prussian model of education adopted in other places?
After the American Revolution (1765-83) and the French Revolution (1789-99).
73
What was the aim of the new governments in adopting the Prussian model of education?
To instill a sense of nationalism and foster useful skills.
74
What were some challenges in implementing public education in various countries?
Education was expensive, and in the United States, it was controlled by the states, not the federal government.
75
When did public education begin to be introduced in Japan?
In the 1870s, following the Prussian model.
76
When did France and other Western European states institute public education?
In the 1880s.
77
When did Britain institute public education?
In the 1890s.
78
When did the United States establish country-wide public education?
In 1918.
79
What led to a growth in educational theory?
The advent of public education.
80
What was the predominant approach to elementary education?
Memorization and rote learning, often using state-approved textbooks.
81
What was the underlying idea behind the traditional approach to teaching?
The idea that children were undeveloped adults.
82
Who challenged the idea that children were undeveloped adults and introduced different teaching philosophies based on child development?
Philosophers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Maria Montessori, and Rudolf Steiner.
83
What method to test children's intellectual development was devised in 1904?
Alfred Binet, in collaboration with Théodore Simon, devised the Binet-Simon test.
84
How was the Binet-Simon test initially intended to be used?
It was intended to identify children's level of intellectual development or mental age.
85
What was the Binet-Simon test later perceived as?
Many saw it as the first IQ (intelligence quotient) test, testing intelligence rather than just intellectual development.
86
What was the correlation between levels of education and levels of regional success in the twentieth century?
There was a strong correlation; regions with high levels of education had stronger industrial growth, more competent bureaucracies, better health care, better-trained military forces, and were more innovative.
87
How was education measured in terms of regional success?
Particularly by levels of literacy.
88
What were some characteristics of regions with low levels of education?
They had lower levels of industrialization, poorly run bureaucracies, poorer health, less well-trained military forces, and lower levels of innovation.
89
How does education resemble technological determinism?
Having public education leads to having a society that can produce and manage complex technology, suggesting a close relationship between education and a society's technological capabilities.
90
How did people who believed strongly in progress view the future after the First World War?
They saw the future as closer than ever and were creating it by rejecting ties to the past.
91
Who was one of the powerful industrialists who rejected tradition and emphasized living in the present?
Henry Ford.
92
What did Henry Ford say about history in an interview with a reporter from the Chicago Tribune in 1916?
"History is more or less bunk. It’s tradition. We don't want tradition. We want to live in the present and the only history that is worth a tinker’s dam is the history we make today" (May 25, 1916).
93
What attitude towards tradition did Henry Ford express?
He rejected tradition, emphasizing the importance of living in the present and creating history today.
94
How was the Great War of 1914-18 perceived by many people?
Many saw it as a fight left over from the age of Napoleon and fought for irrelevant and outdated monarchs.
95
What was one of the outcomes of the Great War?
It resulted in the death of a generation of young men and introduced mechanized killing.
96
What was seen as the only way forward after the Great War?
Embracing the future, which meant embracing new technologies.
97
What was a characteristic of the new era between the wars?
The locus of invention moved to the United States, where many innovations were introduced.
98
What significant idea did Robert Goddard propose in 1920?
He suggested that a rocket could reach the Moon, making real the dreams of Jules Verne.
99
What accomplishment did Charles Lindbergh achieve in 1927?
He flew non-stop from New York to Paris, thrilling the world.
100
How did inventors become viewed in the new era?
They were no longer just innovators but became synonymous with the industrial development that grew up around their inventions.
101
When did commercial radio begin, and who sponsored the first station?
Commercial radio began in October 1920 when Westinghouse-sponsored station KDKA began broadcasting.
102
What was a significant technological feat of the nineteenth century related to communication?
The transatlantic telegraph, which began sending messages in 1866.
103
When did the transatlantic telephone service start, and how did it function?
It started in 1927, using radio instead of cable.
104
How did newspapers convey news rapidly in this era?
They often had two editions a day.
105
What provided visual and audio recordings from around the world in the early 20th century?
Newsreels from companies such as Pathé, Hearst Metrotone News, and Fox Movietone News.
106
What innovation revolutionized the film industry's sound production in 1927?
The introduction of sound produced on the film itself rather than as separate recordings.
107
What film is often cited as the first "talkie" and why is it significant?
"The Jazz Singer" (1927) is often cited as the first talkie because it was the first box office smash hit to use the new technology, generating significant earnings.
108
What connected Manhattan, New York, and Jersey City, New Jersey, under the Hudson River?
The Holland Tunnel.
109
When was the construction of the Holland Tunnel started, and who was it named after?
It was started in 1920 and named after Chief Engineer Clifford Holland.
110
What was the purpose of the powerful ventilation system in the Holland Tunnel?
It was designed to expel exhaust fumes produced during the trip through the tunnel.
111
What mode of transportation was favored in municipal, state, and national planning from the 1920s?
Road construction, specifically for automobiles.
112
Who opened the first motel, and where was it located?
Arthur S. Heineman opened the first motel, the Milestone Mo-Tel, in San Luis Obispo, California.
113
What was the significance of the Milestone Mo-Tel?
It was the first motel, combining the words "motor" and "hotel," and charged $1.25 per night.
114
What significant changes occurred after soldiers returned home following the war?
Many soldiers returned to their homes, some to farms, but the world was not the same.
115
What was the immediate atmosphere following the war and the influenza epidemic?
There was a huge sense of relief.
116
What competition did Heineman's Mo-Tel face in the 1920s?
It faced competition as "tin-can" tourists began using their cars to travel across the United States.
117
What characterized the 1920s in America?
The 1920s became famous for flappers, parties, and, in Prohibition-bound America, speakeasies and jazz.
118
What were some of the hidden costs of the war?
The cost of the war in monetary and human terms was immense.
119
What actions did France and Belgium take in response to Germany's economic depression?
They invaded the Ruhr valley, occupying the industrial and resource-rich zone during 1923-4.
120
Who argued against allowing Germany to collapse economically?
The influential economist John Maynard Keynes, who was an important member of the British Treasury at the time.
121
Who were the first people to fly over the North Pole in 1926?
Richard Evelyn Byrd and Floyd Bennet.
122
What prize did Richard Evelyn Byrd attempt to claim in 1927?
He attempted to claim the Orteig Prize for the first non-stop flight from the United States to France.
123
Who ultimately won the Orteig Prize in 1927?
Charles Lindbergh won the prize, completing the flight on May 21, 1927.
124
What was the nickname of Charles Lindbergh?
"Lucky Lindy."
125
What aircraft did Charles Lindbergh fly across the Atlantic?
He flew the Spirit of St. Louis.
126
How long did it take Charles Lindbergh to complete his solo flight across the Atlantic?
He completed the flight in 33 1/2 hours.
127
What honor did Charles Lindbergh receive upon his return?
President Calvin Coolidge presented him with the Congressional Medal of Honor in 1929.
128
What era is known as the beginning of the Golden Age of the dirigible?
The era between 1930 and 1936.
129
How long did it take the Graf Zeppelin to circumnavigate the globe in 1929?
Twenty-one days.
130
What was a significant development in dirigible travel between Germany and Brazil?
Between 1930 and 1936, there were scheduled Zeppelin flights between Germany and Brazil.
131
What led to a decline in dirigible travel?
The Hindenburg disaster, in which the airship caught fire and resulted in casualties.
132
How many passengers and crew members were killed in the Hindenburg disaster?
Thirteen passengers, twenty-two air crew, and one ground crew member.
133
What media recorded the Hindenburg disaster?
The landing and subsequent disaster were filmed by four newsreel crews, and radio reporter Herbert Morrison recorded his eye-witness account.
134
How did Lindbergh continue his involvement with aviation during the inter-war years?
Lindbergh was invited by the German air force to inspect their new aircraft.
135
What was Lindbergh convinced of regarding Germany's capabilities in future wars?
Lindbergh became convinced that Germany would win any future war against France and Britain because German aircraft were superior and German military commanders understood the future of war.
136
What advice did Lindbergh give to Congress regarding America's involvement in future European wars?
Lindbergh advised Congress that America should remain neutral in any future European war.
137
How did Lindbergh's public statements link technology to political decisions?
Lindbergh became one of the first major public figures to comment on the role of technology for the wider world, linking technology to political decisions.
138
What tragic event occurred in Lindbergh's life in 1932?
The twenty-month-old Charles Lindbergh Jr. was kidnapped and killed.
139
What was the significance of events like Lindbergh's flight in shaping popular belief in the power of technology?
They were unmatched in making people aware of the changes to society that technology was creating.
140
How did extensive news coverage contribute to people's knowledge about airplanes?
People who had never seen an airplane in real life knew all about them from the extensive news coverage and articles in magazines.
141
Name some magazines that contributed to promoting the world of mechanical marvels.
Magazines such as The English Mechanic and World of Science, Popular Science Monthly, Popular Mechanics, and La Science et la Vie.
142
What kind of world did magazines like The English Mechanic and World of Science promote?
They promoted the conquest of time and space in a world of mechanical marvels.
143
When did the Great Depression begin?
The Great Depression began when the American stock market dropped on October 29, 1929, known as "Black Tuesday."
144
What factors contributed to the stock market collapse?
Factors included speculation, buying stocks on margin, and overproduction by industrial powers.
145
How did technology play a role in creating the Great Depression?
Technology played a role by contributing to overproduction, particularly among industrial powers attempting to recover from the war.
146
What were some consequences of the overproduction and debt incurred during the war?
The actual market for manufactured goods fell, worsening the economic situation.
Flashcard 5:
147
What were some governmental policies that exacerbated the effects of the Great Depression?
Monetary policies prevented government intervention in the early stages of the decline, and reactionary trade barriers such as high tariffs were imposed to protect domestic production after the market fell.
148
Who proposed the idea for a stock market telegraph, and when?
Edward A. Calahan proposed the idea in 1867.
149
What was Thomas Edison's contribution to stock market communication?
Edison invented the "Universal Stock Printer," an improved stock ticker.
150
How did the stock ticker contribute to the panic during the stock market collapse of October 29, 1929?
The ticker was overloaded and lagged behind the market's activities, causing panic as investors couldn't follow the market and had their orders delayed.
151
What was the function of the "Universal Stock Printer"?
It was essentially a dedicated telegraph line connected to a printer that recorded the trading of stocks.
152
How did delays in stock information impact investors during the market collapse?
Investors faced delays in receiving information or processing orders, leading to losses as stocks fell before sell orders could be executed.
153
When did the Great Depression reach its lowest point?
The Great Depression reached its lowest point in 1933.
154
What characterized the easing of the Great Depression by 1938?
Despite the easing of the Great Depression, political tensions were rising.
155
What were some key events during the period of rising political tensions?
Japan attacked China, and Germany and Italy came under fascist control. The Spanish Civil War also occurred from 1936 to 1939.
156
What characterized the Spanish Civil War?
The Spanish Civil War was seen as a test of ideologies, with various factions including communists, socialists, and liberal democrats fighting against conservative Nationalists and fascists.
157
How did Germany contribute to the Spanish Civil War?
Germany supplied armor, aircraft, and weapons to the Nationalists, aiding them in winning the war.
158
How was warfare technology evolving during this time?
Warfare technology became increasingly mechanized, with the application of industrial techniques to the production of war materials and the development of command and control systems based on industrial efficiency and modern communications.
159
How did the scope of the Second World War compare to the First World War?
The Second World War reached around the globe, with major battles occurring on three continents and involving more than 100 million soldiers from thirty countries, compared to the predominantly European and Ottoman theater of the First World War.
160
What problems were not resolved by the Great War?
The Great War did not resolve the underlying problems of natural resources and international relations that had sparked the earlier conflict.
161
How did the economic situation contribute to the rise of dictatorial leaders?
The economic situation made populations susceptible to the simple solutions proposed by dictatorial leaders like Hitler around the world.
162
What belief among German military leaders fueled Germany's preparations for another war?
German military leaders believed that a modern, technologically superior army could defeat the armies of other European powers and gain territory, natural resources, and political and cultural hegemony.
163
What were some of the goals Germany aimed to achieve in another war?
Germany aimed to gain territory, natural resources, and political and cultural hegemony that had not been achieved in the earlier war.
164
What response did France have to the threat of German rearming?
France responded by constructing the Maginot Line, named after André Maginot, the Minister of War.
165
What was the Maginot Line?
The Maginot Line was a massive set of defensive positions consisting of trenches, pillboxes, gun emplacements, and fortifications running from Switzerland to Luxembourg, with smaller defensive positions extending to the English Channel.
166
How was the Maginot Line described in comparison to land-locked battleships?
The Maginot Line was described as the equivalent of land-locked battleships, complete with heavy guns, command centers, mess halls, and barracks.
167
How much did the construction of the Maginot Line cost?
The project cost over 3 billion francs.
168
Who promoted the idea of mechanized warfare, which became influential for the German military doctrine of Blitzkrieg?
Major General J. F. C. Fuller promoted the idea of mechanized warfare.
169
What was Major General J. F. C. Fuller's book published in 1926, outlining the scientific principles of war?
Major General J. F. C. Fuller published "The Foundations of the Science of War" in 1926.
170
What military doctrine did Major General J. F. C. Fuller's ideas serve as a template for?
Major General J. F. C. Fuller's ideas served as a template for the German doctrine of Blitzkrieg or "lightning war."
171
What was Major General J. F. C. Fuller's association with the British fascist movement and Hitler?
In the 1930s, Major General J. F. C. Fuller joined the British fascist movement, and in 1939 he was a guest at Hitler's fiftieth birthday and observed the mechanized army of the Third Reich.
172
What doctrine did the German military adopt, primarily due to its reliance on mechanized warfare technology?
The German military adopted the doctrine of Blitzkrieg.
173
What were the key elements of Blitzkrieg strategy?
The key elements of Blitzkrieg strategy were surprise, speed, and combined forces to overwhelm the enemy.
174
How did Blitzkrieg tactics aim to achieve victory?
Blitzkrieg tactics aimed to strike quickly to prevent the enemy from responding effectively, cutting through specific points in the enemy's front line to disrupt communications and supply lines.
175
How did Blitzkrieg tactics approach attacking fortified enemy positions?
Blitzkrieg tactics avoided head-on attacks on fortified positions, instead isolating them from supply and information and allowing forces following the initial attack wave to "mop up" these isolated positions.
176
What components were integrated into the German military's operations to achieve Blitzkrieg?
The German military's operations integrated airpower, artillery, armor, and infantry.
177
How did the Luftwaffe contribute to Blitzkrieg tactics?
The Luftwaffe served as a form of long-range artillery, providing support for armored units and bombing enemy positions.
178
What was the effect of integrating airpower, artillery, armor, and infantry in Blitzkrieg tactics?
Integrating these components extended the depth of front lines from a few kilometers in the First World War to hundreds of kilometers, reflecting the effective range of bombers.
179
Where were many of the principles of Blitzkrieg tactics tested before World War II?
Many of the principles of Blitzkrieg tactics were tested during the Spanish Civil War (1936-9) when Germany supplied tanks and bombers to the Nationalists.
180
What was one aspect of the German strategy during the early stages of World War II?
The German strategy utilized the technological capabilities of various military branches to their best advantage.
181
Which countries did Germany score quick victories over at the start of World War II?
Germany scored quick victories over Poland, Belgium, and France.
182
Why were Poland, Belgium, and France overwhelmed by German attacks?
They were overwhelmed by the speed of the attacks, unprepared to deal with armored assaults, and unable to counter German air superiority.
183
How successful was the Blitzkrieg strategy for the German military?
The Blitzkrieg strategy was more successful than the German military had dared to hope, leading to quick victories over several countries.
184
What significant problems were disguised by the success of the Blitzkrieg for the German military?
The success of the Blitzkrieg disguised problems such as the need for a large infrastructure and vast quantities of resources, especially petroleum and munitions.
185
What event in 1941 exacerbated Germany's resource problems?
In 1941, Hitler broke the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and attacked the Soviet Union, opening a second front that required additional supplies.
186
What limitation of the Blitzkrieg strategy was revealed during the Battle of Britain?
Despite the devastating air war during the Battle of Britain, the expected invasion of Britain never occurred, indicating the limits of the Blitzkrieg strategy.
187
Despite major victories, what objectives did the German military fail to achieve during World War II?
Despite major victories on multiple fronts, the German military failed to capture the oil fields of the Soviet Union or in the Middle East.
188
What functional problem did the Blitzkrieg strategy face?
The Blitzkrieg strategy was designed for aggressive attacks against static defenders, but it lacked a natural method for holding captured territory.
189
What challenge did Germany face in utilizing captured territory during World War II?
Germany lacked the manpower and political methods to effectively utilize captured territory and deal with subjugated populations.
190
What was the Battle of Kursk, and why was it significant?
The Battle of Kursk, during July and August 1943, was the largest tank battle in history. It pitted technically sophisticated German tanks against mass-produced Soviet T-34s and demonstrated the failure of the Blitzkrieg strategy.
191
Why did the German attack fail at the Battle of Kursk?
The German attack was blunted by defensive lines, and the Soviet Army, willing to absorb huge losses, wore down the Germans by constantly moving tanks and providing air cover.
192
What defensive measure did Germany undertake in 1942 to defend against potential invasion across the English Channel?
In 1942, Germany began building its version of the Maginot Line, known as the Atlantikwall, to defend the western coast of Europe from invasion.
193
How did the Atlantikwall compare to the Maginot Line in terms of its fate?
Despite experiencing greater fighting along the Atlantikwall, it ultimately suffered the same fate as the Maginot Line: being surpassed, cut off, and captured by a fast-moving, combined-forces attack.
194
What contributed to Germany's downfall by 1943?
By 1943, Germany faced challenges from new Allied aircraft, tanks, and U-boats, as well as the industrial capacity of the United States, which started to resupply the Allies. Additionally, Germany was sandwiched between Soviet forces in the east and Anglo-American forces in the west.
195
How have historians of technology debated the effect of war on innovation?
Historians of technology have debated the effect of war on innovation, acknowledging that new devices and tactics influence the course of combat, but also recognizing the risks associated with allocating resources to experimental and untested weapons during wartime.
196
When does the perfection of new weapons and systems typically occur?
The perfection of new weapons and systems often occurs in the years following a war, rather than during the war itself.
197
Can you provide an example of technological innovation during the interwar period?
Aircraft were used during the First World War, but there were far more innovations in aeronautics between the wars than during the war itself.
198
