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Biology - Module 4 > Chapter 10 - Classification and evolution > Flashcards

Chapter 10 - Classification and evolution Flashcards

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1
Q

What is taxonomy

A

The practise of biological classification

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2
Q

What is beneficial about the hierarchal classification system

A

There’s no overlap

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3
Q

What is each group called in the hierarchal system

A

Taxon (Plural taxa)

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4
Q

Hierarchal classification - mnemonic

A

Dear king Phillips came over for gay sex

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5
Q

Difference between higher + lower ranks on classification system

A

• higher ranks contain more organisms with less similarity between them.

• lower ranks contain fewer organisms with more similarity between them.

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6
Q

Three domains

A

Eukarya + archaea + bacteria

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7
Q

Define species

A

a group of organisms that are able to reproduce to produce fertile offspring

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8
Q

How to name a species scientifically

A

Binomial system = a group of organisms that are able to reproduce to produce fertile offspring

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9
Q

Importance of binomials

A

allow for species to be universally identified - the binomial for a species is the same across the entire globe

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10
Q

What should be done when writing binomial name

A
  • always typed in italics or underlined when handwritten.
  • The genus name should have a capital letter but the species name should not
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11
Q

What type is bacteria

A

Prokaryotic

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12
Q

What type is archaea

A

Prokaryotic

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13
Q

What type is eukarya

A

Eukaryotic

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14
Q

How did scientists realise that prokaryotes where split into two groups / domains

A

• Based on molecular analyses of RNA genes in particular, and by looking at features such as ribosomal RNA (rRNA), aspects of protein synthesis and the structure of cell membranes and flagell

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15
Q

Features of archaea that are the same as bacteria

A

No nucleus = same as bacteria + similar size range

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16
Q

Features of archaea that are different from bacteria

A

o Unique lipids being found in the membranes of their cells
o No peptidoglycan in their cell walls
o Ribosomal structure (particularly that of the small subunit) are more similar to the eukaryotic ribosome than that of the bacteria

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17
Q

DNA transcription in archaea…

A

is more similar to that of eukaryotes

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18
Q

How do bacterial cells divide

A

By binary fission

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19
Q

What are the three differences between archaea + bacteria

A

• Membrane lipids
• Ribosomal RNA
• Cell wall composition

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20
Q

How are membrane lipids different between archaea + bacteria

A

• Archaea = Consist of branched hydrocarbon chains bonded to glycerol by ether linkages

• Bacteria = consist of unbranched hydrocarbon chains bonded to glycerol by ester linkages

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21
Q

How is ribosomal DNA different between archaea + bacteria

A

• Both Archaea and Bacteria possess 70S ribosomes

The base sequences + primary structure of ribosomal DNA / ribosomes more similar to eukarya in archaea

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22
Q

How is cell wall composition different between archaea + bacteria

A

• Bacteria = peptidoglycan
• Archaea = some have peptidoglycan walls + others do not contain peptidoglycan

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23
Q

Overall comparison table between archaea / bacteria / eukarya = cell type / chromosome / cell membrane lipids / ribosomes / cell walls / histones

A
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24
Q

List the 5 kingdoms

A

o Prokaryota
o Protoctista
o Fungi
o Plantae
o Animalia

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25
Q

What are the key features of prokaryota

A
  • generally unicellular
  • have cell walls + cytoplasm
  • vary in size
  • divide by binary fission
  • • Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic = nutrients are absorbed through the cell wall or produced internally by photosynthesis.
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26
Q

What are autotrophic feeders

A

photosynthetic

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27
Q

What are heterotrophic feeders

A

feeding by decomposing living / dead organisms + nutrients absorbed

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28
Q

Key features of protoctista

A
  • mainly unicellular
  • Eukaryotic = nucleus
  • Some have chloroplasts
  • Some are sessile, other moves by cilia, flagella or by amoeboid mechanisms.
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29
Q

Key Features of fungi

A

• eukaryotic
• non-cellulose cell walls = normally made from chitnin
• don’t have cilia
- heterotrophs
- reproduce using spores
- no chloroplasts
- • some consist of long threads = hyphae = that grow from fungus body + form a network = mycelium

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30
Q

What are hyphae

A

Long threads in fungi

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31
Q

What is mycelium

A

Fungi body = fungus network

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32
Q

Key features of plantae

A
  • cell walls composed of cellulose
    o Possess large (and usually permanent) vacuoles = provide structural support
    o able to differentiate into specialized cells = tissues and organs
    o chloroplasts
    o sometimes have flagella
  • autotrophs
  • multicellular
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33
Q

Key features of animalia

A
  • multicellular eukaryotic organism
  • able to differentiate
  • small temporary vacuoles
  • no cell walls
  • heterotrophs
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34
Q

How do prokaryota divide

A

Binary fission

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35
Q

What are the cell walls made up in fungi

A

Chitnin

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36
Q

Does fungi have cilia

A

NO

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37
Q

Prokaryota is..

A

Bacteria

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38
Q

Protoctista i..

A

Unicellular eukaryotes

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39
Q

Fungi are..

A

yeast, moulds, mushrooms, etc.

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40
Q

Plantae is

A

Plants

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41
Q

Animalia is

A

Animals

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42
Q

Which kingdoms have nuclear envelopes

A

Protoctista / fungi / plantae / animalia

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43
Q

Which kingdoms have cell walls

A

Prokaryota / some protoctista/ fungi / plantae

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44
Q

What is the cell wall made of in prokaryota

A

Peptidoglycan

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45
Q

What is the cell wall made of in plantae

A

Cellulosw

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46
Q

What is the cell wall made of in fungi

A

Chitnin

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47
Q

Which kingdoms have organelles + fibres e,g microtubule

A

All but prokaryota

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48
Q

type of nutrition - prokaryota

A

Autotrophic + heterotrophic

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49
Q

type of nutrition - protoctista

A

Autotrophic + heterotrophic

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50
Q

type of nutrition - fungi

A

Heterotrophic

Saprophytic feeders

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51
Q

type of nutrition - plantae

A

Autotrophic

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52
Q

type of nutrition - animalia

A

Heterotrophic

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53
Q

Are prokaryota mobile

A

Some bacteria have flagella

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54
Q

Are protoctista mobile

A

Come have flagella / cilia

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55
Q

Are fungi mobile

A

No

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56
Q

Are plantae mobile

A

Gametes of some plants have flagella

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57
Q

Are animalia mobile

A

Yes = muscle

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58
Q

Which kingdom has nervous coordination

A

Just animalia

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59
Q

Examples of prokaryota

A

Bacteria

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60
Q

Examples of protoctista

A

Amoeba / algae / moulds

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61
Q

Example of fungi

A

Mould fungi

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62
Q

Example of plantae

A

Liverworts / flowering plants / mosses / ferns / conifers

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63
Q

Examples of animalia

A

Jellyfish / coral / worms / insects / vertebrae

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64
Q

Define homology

A

old biological classification systems grouped organisms based on shared features

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65
Q

What does it mean if features are homologous

A

• Features are homologous if they are shared by organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor

66
Q

Why is using physical features bad classification

A

has many limitations and can often lead to the wrong classification of species

67
Q

Define phylogeny

A

the evolutionary history of organisms

68
Q

Define phylogenetic tree

A

diagrams that show the evolutionary relationships between different taxa

69
Q

What are the types of data used to investigate evolutionary relationships

A

o DNA
o mRNA
o Amino acids (of a protein)

70
Q

More similar sequences…

A

More closely related

71
Q

More different sequences

A

Less closely related

• Species that have been separated for longer have had a greater amount of time to accumulate mutations and changes to their DNA, mRNA and amino acid sequences

72
Q

If your looking at proteins for phylogeny what needs to be present

A

the protein used needs to be present in a wide range of organisms and show sufficient variation between species

73
Q

How to compare DNA

A

extracted from the nuclei of cells taken from an organism

74
Q

Where can DNA be extracted from

A

from blood or skin samples from living organisms or from fossils

75
Q

Read notes on using antibodies in classification = module 4 = results / interpretation

A
76
Q

from blood or skin samples from living organisms or from fossils

A

They are not a species

77
Q

What is a sister group?

A

Groups with a recent split, the two groups that diverged most recently

78
Q

What is a node? (in relation to phylogenetic trees)

A

Divergence of a species

79
Q

What is a tip? (in relation to phylogenetic trees)

A

Present day organisms

80
Q

If two species have a recent divergence, are they closely related?

A

Yes. The more recent the divergence, the more closely related organisms are

81
Q

Under the 3 domain system, how many kingdoms are there?

A

6

82
Q

Under the 3 domain system, what are the 6 kingdoms?

A

Eubacteria
•Archaebacteria
• Protoctista
• Plantae
• Fungi
•Animalia

83
Q

Give 3 similarities between the domains of Bacteria and Archae

A

circular chromosomes
• no nucleus
• 70s ribosomes
• no membrane bound organelles

84
Q

Give a similarity between the domains of Bacteria and Eukarya

A

normal phospholipids in membranes

85
Q

Give 3 similarities between the domains of Eukarya and Archae

A

similar DNA replication
• histones bound to DNA
• No peptidoglycan cell walls
• not susceptible to antibiotics
• similar RNA polymerase

86
Q

Darwin’s evidence

A
87
Q

Evidence for evolution

A

Fossils (palaeontology)
• - DNA
• - Molecular evidence

88
Q

How can the relative age of fossils be determined?

A

over time sediment is deposited to form rock strata
• recent rock strata are found at the top and older rock strata are found at the bottom
• radioisotope dating can be completed on fossils to date rock strata

89
Q

How do fossils provide evidence for evolution?

A

fossils of the simplest organisms are found in the oldest rocks
• fossils of more complex organisms are found in more recent rocks
• allow relationships between extinct and living organisms to be investigated
• sequence in which organisms are found matches ecological links

90
Q

What is comparative anatomy?

A

The study of similarities and differences between organisms’ anatomy

91
Q

How does comparative anatomy provide evidence for evolution?

A

-Homologous structures provide evidence for divergent evolution and that from a common ancestor different species have evolved

92
Q

How does molecular evidence show evolution

A

Differences in nucleotide sequence shows how closely related species are
• - Ribosomal RNA has a very slow rate of substitution so is commonly used with fossil info to determine relationships between ancient species

93
Q

Define variation

A

differences that exist between two or more things

94
Q

Define genetic variation

A

variation with genotypes between or within species

95
Q

Define phenotypic variation

A

variation in phenotypes = any other features apart from genes e.g weight mass shape colour blood type

96
Q

Define interspecific variation

A

variation between species

97
Q

Define intraspecific variation

A

variation within species

98
Q

What is Discontinuous variation

A
  • Falls into distinct groups = blood groups
  • differences in phenotypes
99
Q

What is continuous variation

A
  • Forms from quantitative differences in phenotypes
  • Does not fall into distinct groups = mass / height
100
Q

Causes of Variation

A

• Genetic or environmental

101
Q

Causes of discontinuous variation

A

Result of inheritance of one gene with 2 or more alleles
• Solely due to genetic factors
• Phenotype = genotype

102
Q

Causes of continuous variation

A

due to the inheritance of 2 or more genes

  • interaction between genetic + environmental
103
Q

What are the 5 causes of genetic variation?

A

presence of a different allele
• random fertilisation/random fusion of gametes
• random mating
• melosIs
• mutations

104
Q

What are the two types of mutations?

A

Point mutations and chromosomal mutations

105
Q

What are point mutations?

A

Change in the base sequence of DNA

106
Q

How do chromosomal mutations arise?

A

From crossing over

107
Q

What are the two sources of variation in meiosis?

A

•crossing over
- independent assortment

108
Q

Is continuous variation influenced by the environment?

A

Can be

109
Q

Is discontinuous variation influenced by the environment?

A

No

110
Q

Define polygenic

A

A characteristic is controlled by two or more genes

111
Q

Define multifactorial

A

Involving both genetic and environmental factors

112
Q

If a mutation occurs in a somatic cell

A

just the individual is affected.

113
Q

If a mutation occurs in a hamate

A

could pass to offspring.

114
Q

Define selection pressures

A

Environmental factors that affect the chance of survival of an organism

115
Q

What do selection pressed effect

A

the allele frequencies of a population through natural selection

116
Q

Example of natural selection - lions = refer to allele frequency

A

o The lions with the advantageous alleles are more likely to catch prey and survive
o These lions will produce more offspring
o The allele frequency will increase in the population
o The resulting adaptation will become more common in the population
o The species will be better suited to their environment

117
Q

Three types of adaptation

A

Anatomical

Physiological

Behavioural

118
Q

Anatomical adaptations

A

o Structural or physical features

119
Q

Example of anatomical adaptations

A

white fur of a polar bear provides camouflage in the snow so it has less chance of being detected by prey

120
Q

Physiological adaptations

A

o Biological processes within the organism

121
Q

Example of physiological adaptations

A

Mosquitos produce chemicals that stop the animal’s blood clotting when they bite, so that they can feed more easily

122
Q

Behavioural adaptations

A

o The way an organism behaves

123
Q

Example of behavioural adaptations

A

Cold-blooded reptiles bask in the sun to absorb heat

124
Q

What is evolution

A

change in adaptive features of a population over time as a result of natural selection

125
Q

What is convergent evolution

A

species that do not share a recent common ancestor = live in different parts = show very high levels of similarity in terms of adaptations

126
Q

When does convergent evolution occur

A

when the two habitats, in which the two species have evolved and to which they have become adapted, are very similar

127
Q

Example of convergent evolution - spec

A

• marsupial moles = Australian desert + European mole

128
Q

Similarities between the two moles

A

• Both species burrow through soil and very rarely emerge in daylight.

o short and powerful limbs, with large, strong front claws for shovelling soil out of the way

o no external ears = not necessary underground + have simple ear canal openings in their fur

o limited eyesight = not needed

o very similar, highly silky and fine fur that allows them to move efficiently underground

129
Q

What is genetic variation

A

• differences in DNA base sequences between individual organisms within a species population

130
Q

What happens if genetic variation is passed on through generations

A

results in genetic diversity

131
Q

What is genetic diversity needed for

A

Natural selection

132
Q

How does selection pressures impact natural selection

A

increase the chance of individuals with a specific (more advantageous) phenotype surviving and reproducing over other

133
Q

What is fitness

A

ability to survive and pass on its alleles to offspring

134
Q

What does it mean to have a higher fitness

A

individuals with the favoured phenotypes = better suited to their environment

135
Q

Example of selection pressures

A

Environmental factors

136
Q

What would happen if all the offspring of every individual survived to adulthood and reproduced

A

population would experience exponential growth

137
Q

How does natural selection happen = refer to alleles

A

• Random mutation can produce new alleles of a gene

• the new alleles may benefit their possessor, leading to an increased chance of survival and increased reproductive success

• The advantageous allele is passed onto the next generation

• As a result, over several generations, the new allele will increase in frequency in the population

138
Q

GCSE natural selection exam answer

A

• Within a species, there is always variation and chance mutation

• Some individuals will develop a phenotype (characteristic) that gives them a survival advantage and this allows them to:
o live longer
o breed more
o be more likely to pass their genes on

• Repeated over generations, the ‘mutated’ phenotype will become the norm

• If genetic differences accumulate and the population is isolated then a new species may evolve

139
Q

What are antibiotics

A

• chemical substances that inhibit or kill bacterial cells with little or no harm to human tissue

140
Q

Natural selection in bacteria - refer to antibiotic resistance

A

• variation caused by mutations = bacteria

• A chance mutation might cause some bacteria to become resistant to an antibiotic

• When the population is treated with this antibiotic, the resistant bacteria do not die

• means the resistant bacteria can continue to reproduce with less competition from the non-resistant bacteria, which are now dead

• Therefore the genes for antibiotic resistance are passed on with a much greater frequency to the next generation

141
Q

Mutations in bacteria - what would change

A

o mutation may change an existing gene within the bacterial genome, causing it to give rise to a nucleotide sequence that codes for a slightly different protein that is not affected by the antibiotic being used

142
Q

Why do mutant genes have an immediate effect on bacteria

A

o As bacteria only have one copy of each gene, a mutant gene will have an immediate effect on any bacterium possessing it

143
Q

How do bacteria inherit resistance - 2

A

• Vertical transmission / Horizontal transmission

144
Q

Vertical transmission

A

• Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission

• reproduce like this very rapidly (on average, every 20 minutes)

• If one bacterium contains a mutant gene that gives it antibiotic resistance, all of its descendants (millions of which can be produced in a matter of hours) will also have the antibiotic resistance

• This form of transmission enables antibiotic resistance to spread within a bacterial population

145
Q

Horizontal transmission

A

• plasmids often contain antibiotic-resistant genes

• plasmids are frequently transferred between bacteria = even from one species to another

• occurs during conjugation – DNA from the bacterial chromosome can also be transferred in this way

• bacterium containing a mutant gene that gives it antibiotic resistance could pass this gene on to other bacteria

146
Q

Conjunction

A

when a thin tube forms between two bacteria to allow the exchange of DNA

147
Q

Key process in vertical + horizontal

A

Vertical = binary fission

Horizontal = conjunction

148
Q

Difference between vertical + horizontal transmission

A

Vertical = resistance spreads within bacterial population

Horizontal = resistance spreads between or within bacterial populations

149
Q

Is vertical or horizontal more dangerous and why

A

Horizontal = o how ‘superbugs’ with multiple resistance have developed = MRSA

150
Q

What has effected this natural selection of bacteria

A

Humans

151
Q

How have humans helped to develop this natural selection in bacteria

A

• Incorrect use of antibiotics

o Treatment of non-serious infections
o Routine treatments in animals in agriculture
o Failure to finish prescribed course

152
Q

Types of pesticides

A

• Insecticides (kill insect pests)
• Herbicides (kill plant pests)
• Fungicides (kill fungal pests)
• Molluscicides (kill slug and snail pests)
• Rodenticides (kill rodent pests)

153
Q

Insecticides that are sprayed on crops act as…

A

selective agents

154
Q

Selective agents

A

any environmental factor that influences the survival of a particular species and so drives natural selection in that species

155
Q

Example of how selective agents work

A

any insect that has a mutation making them resistant to the insecticide will survive and reproduce, passing on the resistant gene

156
Q

Consequences of antibiotic resistance

A

• New resistant strains are constantly emerging due to the overuse of antibiotics

• Commonly prescribed antibiotics are becoming less effective for many reasons.

  • development of superbugs - MRSA
157
Q

Why are new resistant chains of bacteria constantly emerging

A

o By using antibiotics frequently, humans exert a selective pressure on the bacteria, which supports the evolution of antibiotic resistance

158
Q

Why are antibiotics becoming less effective

A

o Overuse of antibiotics and antibiotics being prescribed when not necessary

o Large scale use of antibiotics in farming to prevent disease when livestock are kept in close quarters, even when animals are not sick

159
Q

Consequences of pesticide resistance

A

problem for the security of future food supplies

160
Q

How are we planning to fix the pesticide resistance problem

A

armers are also encouraged to use other forms of insect pest control, such as:

o Biological control (introducing a natural parasite or predator of the pest insect)

o Using crops that have been selectively bred or genetically modified to be pest-resistant

161
Q

behavioural adaptations example

A

courtship

migration

hibernation

162
Q

physiological adaptations example

A

poison production

antibiotic production

water holding

Biology - Module 4 (3 decks)

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