Chapter 10

Question 1

Emotional development

Answer 1

Emotional development is the study of emotions, including when people learn emotions and how they deal with their emotions.
> Emotional development allows attachment to occur between infants and their caregivers.

Question 2

Attachment

Answer 2

A strong, close and emotional bond that develops between an infant and their caregiver and lasts for many years. The rst few years of life is a sensitive period for forming a bond with caregivers, as it may be more di cult but possible to form strong bonds with caregivers later in life. helps people form relationships later in life with friends or lovers

Question 3

John Bowlby’s theory of attachment

Answer 3

He believed that attachment occurs in the rst year of a child’s life, and that the reactions and behaviours of the caregiver are crucial. Bowlby stated that the development of attachment is biological and genetically inherited and typical of human behaviour. In order to keep caregivers close, which is necessary for their survival, infants cry, coo, smile, crawl, walk and follow their mothers.

Question 4

Privation

Answer 4

If attachment never occurs – that is, if a child never forms a close relationship with anyone – this is called privation. Privation can cause permanent emotional damage

Question 5

Harry Harlows studies discovered ….

Answer 5

Harry Harlow’s work focused on attachment in primates. He discovered that contact comfort is more important in creating attachment than feeding and nourishment.

Question 6

Mary Ainsworth theory, strange situation

Answer 6

When studying attachment theories we must consider the quality of attachment between infants and their caregivers by observing behaviours.
Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues (1978) were the rst researchers to study di erences in the quality of attachment. Rather than using naturalistic observation techniques, Ainsworth created a laboratory testing technique known as the Strange Situation. Figure 10.4 shows the layout of the laboratory for the Strange Situation tests.
The Strange Situation allowed Ainsworth to measure infant attachment by having infants experience a sequence of events, including separations and reunions with their mothers, and introductions to an adult stranger. The ow-chart in Figure 10.5 outlines the Strange Situation procedure.

Question 7

Figure 10.5

Answer 7

Photo

Question 8

3 types of attachment

Answer 8

Insecure avoidant, secure, insecure resistant

Question 9

Insecure avoidant

Answer 9

These infants rarely get upset when a stranger enters the room. They do not cling to their caregiver at any stage. They show no distress when their caregiver leaves the room and can ignore or avoid them when they return. These infants do become distressed when left alone; however, they can be comforted by either their caregiver or the stranger. Both adults are treated the same way by the infants.

Question 10

Secure

Answer 10

These infants will play happily when their caregiver is present, trusting that their caregiver will be there if they need them. These infants are very attached to their caregiver and will become distressed when their caregiver leaves. A stranger can comfort the infant, but is treated differently to the caregiver. When the caregiver returns, these infants will seek immediate contact and are delighted when they are reunited. In this instance, infants are distressed by the absence of the caregiver, not by being alone.

Question 11

Insecure resistant

Answer 11

These infants are more clingy, cry more and do not explore or play as much as Type A or B. They become extremely distressed when their caregiver leaves and resist any comfort from the stranger. These infants seek contact with the caregiver when reunited, but will not display joy during this time. Instead they will continue to be distressed, cry and will not play. These infants appear to be anxious and negative.

Question 12

Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development

Answer 12

Sensorimotor stage, pre operational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage

Question 13

Schemata

Answer 13

These are mental structures/frameworks that organise past experiences and provide an understanding of future experiences. In infants, schemata are simple: they are the basic blocks of knowledge, such as
the inborn re exes of sucking or grasping. As children grow, schemata become more complex in order to incorporate experiences or information that has been gathered.

Question 14

Assimilation

Answer 14

Assimilation is the process whereby new experiences are combined with existing schemata. For instance, when an infant experiences a new toy for the rst time, they may put it in their mouth and suck on it. This behaviour demonstrates that the infant is trying to t information about this new toy into their existing schema (mental framework) of sucking. Similarly, if a child saw a toy truck for the rst time they would examine it and t it into their schema of cars, since the truck has similar qualities as a car.

Question 15

Accomodation

Answer 15

However, if an infant or child discovers that new information does not t into their schemata, then accommodation occurs. Accommodation is when new experiences cause schemata to change or modify. For instance, if an infant discovers that the object they are trying to suck is too big or tastes awful, or the child discovers that the truck is bigger than a car, then these thoughts cause schemata to change and become more complex.
These processes help infants and children understand their world.

Question 16

Object permanence

Answer 16

Infants come to understand that an object still exists when it is no longer seen.

Question 17

Symbolic thinking

Answer 17

Children develop symbols to represent objects or events. This thinking allows the child to participate in pretend or make-believe play.

Question 18

Animism

Answer 18

Children will believe that inanimate objects are alive for example, talking about toy cars as people.

Question 19

Egocentrism

Answer 19

Children are unable to view the world from someone else’s perspective.

Question 20

Centration

Answer 20

Children can only focus on one aspect of a task at a time: for example, if a child is asked to divide blocks according to size and colour, it is likely they will divide the blocks either on size or colour, but not both.

Question 21

Seriation

Answer 21

Children will have difficulty arranging objects according to one dimension for example, arranging sticks from shortest to longest.

Question 22

Conservation

Answer 22

Children lack conservation; they cannot understand that objects stay the same despite changes in appearance.

Question 23

Reversibility

Answer 23

Children are unable to realise that an action can be done and then undone.

Question 24

Sensorimotor age and explanation

Answer 24

Birth - 2

Infants learn about their world through their senses (hearing, seeing) and by actions (motor) such as grasping or pulling.

Question 25

Pre operational age and explanation

Answer 25

2-7

Children continue to develop,
and they use symbols, images and language to represent their world.

Question 26

Concrete operational age and explanation

Answer 26

7-12

Children can perform basic mental problems that involve physical objects.

Question 27

Formal operational age and explanation

Answer 27

12+

Children are able to think logically and methodically about physical and abstract problems.

Question 28

Formal operational developments and limitations

Answer 28

Children begin to think more flexibly. They can do hypothetical problems, and can form and test hypotheses.

Question 29

Concrete operational d and l

Answer 29

Children begin to understand reversibility and conservation, and display less centration and egocentrism. Children may struggle to solve problems that require abstract thinking.

Question 30

Pre operational d and l 7 items

Answer 30

> Symbolic thinking: Children develop symbols to represent objects or events. This thinking allows the child to participate in pretend or make-believe play.
Animism: Children will believe that inanimate objects are alive for example, talking about toy cars as people.
Egocentrism: Children are unable to view the world from someone else’s perspective.
FIGURE 10.11 Piaget’s Three Mountain Experiment illustrates egocentrism in pre-operational children. Four-year-old children stood in front of a model of three mountains and were shown 10 pictures of the mountains from other sides of the model. Most children could pick out their own view. When asked to select a view from another person’s perspective, most selected their own or another incorrect view.
Centration: Children can only focus on one aspect of a task at a time: for example, if a child is asked to divide blocks according to size and colour, it is likely they will divide the blocks either on size or colour, but not both.
Seriation: Children will have difficulty arranging objects according to one dimension for example, arranging sticks from shortest to longest.
Conservation: Children lack conservation; they cannot understand that objects stay the same despite changes in appearance.

                          Child says both rows have the same number Preoperational child says bottom row has more Preoperational child says top row has more FIGURE 10.12 A conservation of numbers task – pre-operational children are unable to understand that objects stay the same despite changes in their appearance. > Irreversibility: Children are unable to realise that an action can be done and then undone.

Question 31

Sensorimotor d and l

Answer 31

Object permanence: Infants come to understand that an object still exists when it is no longer seen.

Question 32

Piaget’s theory

Answer 32

Piaget believed that cognitive development depends upon the interaction of the brain’s biological maturation with personal experiences. After many years of observations, Piaget proposed that all children go through four di erent cognitive stages sequentially, without missing any (unless there is some sort of brain damage, meaning a child could regress to earlier stages). He believed that these stages were the same for every child, regardless of their culture.

Question 33

Eriksons theory

Answer 33

Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory stems
from psychoanalytic theories. It proposes that development extends throughout the lifespan and is influenced by cultural and social experiences and that all these experiences were crucial in personality development.

Question 34

Psychosocial dilemmas

Answer 34

Erikson believed that during each stage of life we experience developmental tasks and psychosocial dilemmas or ‘crises’ that need to be resolved; the way in which we deal with these shape our personality. A psychosocial dilemma is a con ict between personal impulses and the social world, and Erikson believed that by resolving these con icts, people create a balance between themselves and society. If the con icts
are not resolved, then it is harder for people to deal with other dilemmas later in life, and hence personal growth will be underdeveloped. If the con icts are resolved successfully, then development is normal and healthy, and people will achieve a satisfying life.

Question 35

Eriksons 8 stages of psychosocial development

Answer 35

The eight stages of Erikson’s theory are: trust versus mistrust; autonomy versus shame and doubt; initiative versus guilt; industry versus inferiority; identity versus role confusion; intimacy versus isolation; generativity versus stagnation; and integrity versus despair.

Question 36

Trust vs mistrust

Answer 36

Birth to 1

Infants are completely dependent on others, and normally they receive warmth, love, physical care and attention from their primary caregiver. This allows them to acquire a sense of trust with their caregiver and the outside world. Trust helps infants form attachments to their parents.
> However, if an infant is consistently not receiving warmth, love, physical care and attention, then a sense of mistrust is established. Mistrust can cause insecurity, suspiciousness and an inability to relate to others.

Question 37

Autonomy vs shame and doubt

Answer 37

1-3

Autonomy refers to children wanting independence as their mental and motor abilities develop. With freedom to explore their world, they may feel proud when they do something for themselves such as taking the wrapping off a present or opening a cupboard. Researchers have conducted several studies on autonomy and have observed parents leaving their children in a playroom, either with a stranger or alone. They found that children between one and four years of age showed less distress and looked for less physical contact from their mother.
Two year olds were willing to leave their mother’s side, as long as they could still see her (Carr, Dabbs & Carr, 1975).
> On the other hand, if caregivers are overprotective, or restrain their child or punish them harshly, then shame and doubt will develop in the child.
> In order to resolve this dilemma successfully the child needs to learn about their sense of self and have some independence to discover their world.

Question 38

Initiative vs guilt

Answer 38

3-5

During this stage, parents will encourage initiative in infants by allowing them the freedom to play, ask questions, use their imagination and choose activities.
> However, if parents criticise severely, stop children from playing and/or stop them from asking questions, then feelings of guilt are formed. This may reduce the child’s self-esteem.

Question 39

Industry vs inferiority

Answer 39

6 - puberty

Children unconsciously learn a sense of industry at this age. They become interested in how things are made and how they work, and they may get praise for activities such as building, painting, cooking or reading. Any encouragement allows their sense of industry to increase and they feel worthwhile.
> Yet if a child’s work is considered messy, childish or inadequate, then the child can develop feelings of inferiority.
> During this stage, children discover that their social world can extend outside their family. Their friends, teachers and other adults are important in shaping their attitudes about themselves (their self-concept). Children will often compare their achievements with those of their age peers, whether they are academic or extracurricular achievements. Based on these comparisons, their feelings about their capabilities compared with those of their peers become clear, which can also affect their self-concept and self-esteem.

Question 40

Identity vs role confusion

Answer 40

10-20

At this age, adolescents begin to think about who they are, what they will do with their life and what they are all about. They have to build a steady identity for themselves based on their talents, values, relationships, culture and so on.
> Those adolescents who do not develop an identity will suffer from role confusion.
> According to Erikson, in order to achieve a secure sense of identity, adolescents must
consider (1) their career path, (2) their views on morality and religion, (3) their political views
and (4) social and gender roles.
> Those adolescents who can successfully resolve this dilemma will come out with a new sense
of self that is inspirational and normal.
> Those adolescents who struggle to find a self-identity may display withdrawal behaviours,
isolate themselves from friends and family, or alternatively choose to lose their identity and conform to the crowd (Santrock, 2008).

Question 41

Intimacy vs isolation

Answer 41

20-40

> Usually by this age the young adult has a sure and secure identity and is looking to have deep friendship or love with others. Intimacy refers to the ability to care about others and share experiences with them. Young adults who achieve this are able to experience a mature and intimate love.
However, this can only be achieved if the adult already has a stable identity. An inability to resolve this dilemma can lead to isolation, meaning the adult will be unable to develop deep relationships, which can harm their personality.

Question 42

Generativity vs stagnation

Answer 42

40-60

> This crisis focuses on whether the adult should make a contribution to others’ lives or be totally concerned with themselves and their self-doubts.
Generativity refers to the adult assisting and/or being caring towards the next generation. Adults who do this are ensuring that there is continuation and improvement to society as a whole (Santrock, 2008).
Adults who do not achieve generativity may feel stagnation, which means self-absorption and failing to find a way to contribute. As a result of stagnation, adults may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole.
Generativity can be achieved through parenthood, where adults have the opportunity to nurture and guide children. This dilemma can also be resolved through the adult’s work-life – for instance, teachers, nurses, doctors and artists are able to demonstrate generativity, or alternatively adults may mentor younger workers. Generativity may also be expressed by aiding underprivileged people, aiming for world peace or trying to protect the environment.

Question 43

Integrity vs despair

Answer 43

60 plus

> If adults feel that their life choices were the right choices, then they may feel a sense of integrity. This can lead to wisdom and the recognition that death is inevitable. Integrity can be achieved if elderly adults have successfully resolved the earlier dilemmas throughout their life; this allows them to continue to live fully.
But if adults feel unhappy with their life path and missed opportunities, then they may suffer from despair or regret. In consequence, they may fear death, experience depression and wish that they could go back and do things differently.