Chapter 1: What is Psychology Flashcards
Chapter 2: Psychology's Scientific Method Chapter 3: Biological Foundations of Behavior Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception Chapter 6: Learning Chapter 7: Memory Chapter 5: States of Consciousness
CHAPTER 2: PSYCHOLOGY’S SCIENTIFIC METHOD
CHAPTER 2: PSYCHOLOGY’S SCIENTIFIC METHOD
what is science
science is a method. it’s not what you study, but how you study it
what are scientists purpose
theorize to explain the world
theory
a system of ideas that attempts to explain observations and make predictions about future observations
scientific method
how theories are rejected, or supported, or refined
scientific method
observe hypothesize test conclusions evaluate
step 1: observe
observe some phenomenon:
curiosity & critical thinking
formulate or challenge a theory
step 2: hypothesize
formulate hypotheses and predictions:
testable prediction
derived from theory
step 3: test
test through empirical research:
operational definition of variables
analyze data using statistical procedures
step 4: conclusions
draw conclusions:
replication of results
reliability
step 5: evaluate
evaluate the theory:
change the theory
peer review and publication
meta-analysis
descriptive research
goal: describing a phenomenon
observation
surveys and interviews
case studies
correlational research
goal: identify relationships
experimental research
goal: determine causation
external validity
representative of real world issues?
do results generalize to the real world?
internal validity
are dependent variable changes the result of independent variable manipulation?
bias? logical errors?
bias and expectations
experimenter bias demand characteristics research participant bias placebo effect solution: double-blind experiment
possible research methods
observation survey and interview case studies correlational research experimental research
population
entire group about whom conclusion is to be drawn
sample
portion of population actually observed
representative sample
characteristics similar to population
opposite of “biased sample”
random sample
each individual in population has equal chance of being selected
“artificial” world
laboratory setting, controlled setting
“real” world
natural setting, naturalistic observation
statistics
mathematical methods used to report data
descriptive
describe/summarize
measures of central tendencies
mean
median
mode
measures of dispersion
range
standard deviation
inferential
draw conclusions
APA guidelines
informed consent
confidentiality
debriefing
deception
CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental process
scientific
systematic methods
behavior
what can be directly observed
mental process
thoughts, feelings, motives
science of psychology
critical thinking
skepticism
objectivity
curiosity
positive psychology
emphasizes human strengths
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
1879- established 1st psychology lab Wundt’s Structuralism
structures of the mind
introspection: systematic, detailed self-report
William James (1842-1910)
James' Functionalism: functions/purposes of the mind mind's interactions with outside world stream of consciousness why is human thought adaptive?
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
On the Origin of Species, 1859
psychology and evolution
natural selection
competition for resources
favors genetic characteristics that promote reproduction and survival
environmental changes alter course of evolution
contemporary approaches
biological behavioral psychodynamic humanistic cognitive evolutionary sociocultural
biological appraoch
neuroscience: nervous system structure function development genetics biochemistry
behavioral approach
environmental determinants of observable behavior
reject explanations referencing thought
psychodynamic approach
freud psychoanalysis: unconscious thought conflict between biological drives and demands of society early childhood family experiences
humanistic approach
positive human qualities/potential
free will
cognitive approach
mental processes involved in knowing
information processing
evolutionary approach
explanations of human behavior: adaptation
reproduction
natural selection
sociocultural appraoch
social and cultural environments
differences:
between ethnic and cultural groups
within and across countries
health and wellness
mind-body connection:
how the mind impacts the body
how the body impacts the mind
CHAPTER 3: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR
CHAPTER 3: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR
neuroscience
study of the body’s electrochemical communication circuitry
nervous system
complex
integrated
adaptable (plasticity)
electrochemical transmission
nervous system: pathways
nerves carry information
nervous system: divisions
central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS)
central (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
Peripheral (PNS)
somatic NS: sensory nerves and motor nerves
autonomic NS: sympathetic NS and parasympathetic NS
nervous system - cells
glial cells and neurons
glial cells
provide support and nutrition
neurons
information processing: computing & communicating mirror neurons (in primates): imitation, social perception
neural impulse
negatively + positively charged ions
polarization (imbalance in charges)
resting potential
neural impulse pt. 2
semipermeable membrane ion channels depolarization threshold action potential all-or-none principle
synaptic transmission
electrical impulse is converted into a chemical signal
axon vesicle releases neurotransmitter into gap
dendrite receptor site detects neurotransmitter
neurotransmitter
carry information across the synaptic gap to the next neuron
acetylcholine
muscle actions, learning, memory
black widow venom increase ach level
botox decreases ach levels
alzheimer’s disease decrease ach levels
GABA
anxiety decreases GABA levels
glutamate
excitatory
learning and memory
involved in many psychological disorders
norepinephrine
stress and mania increase norepinephrine levels
depression decreases norepinephrine levels
regulates sleep states in conjunction with Ach
dopamine
voluntary movement
reward anticipation
stimulant drugs: activate dopamine receptors
parkinson’s disease decrease dopamine levels
schizophrenia increases dopamine levels
serotonin
regulation of sleep, mood, attention, learning
depression decreases serotonin levels
prozac increases serotonin levels
endorphines
natural opiates
mediate feelings of pleasure and pain
oxytocin
both a hormone and a neurotransmitter
related to onset of lactation in new mothers
related to attachment/emotional bonds
neural networks
interconnected pathways of nerve cells
integrate sensory input and motor output
develops across the years
studying the brain
brain lesioning: naturally occuring or induced
electrical recording: electroencephalograph (EEG)
single-unit recording
brain image
X-Ray CT Scan PET MRI fMRI
hindbrain
parts of the brain: brainstem and cerebellum
brainstem
medulla - control breathing, regulate reflexes
pons - sleep and arousal
cerebellum
motor coordination
midbrain
substantia nigra
parkinson’s disease
reticular formation
stereotyped behavior patterns (like walking)
forebrain
limbic system and thalamus
limbic system
memory and emotion
amygdala - discrimination of objects needed for survival and emotional awareness and expression
hippocampus - formation and recall of memories
thalamus
relay station for much sensory information
basal ganglia
coordination of voluntary movements
hypothalamus
eating, drinking, sexual behaviors
regulate body’s internal state
emotion, stress, reward
cerebral cortex
neocortex: outermost layer and four lobes
four lobes
occipital (vision)
temporal (hearing, language processing, memory)
frontal (intelligence, personality, voluntary, muscles)
parietal (spatial location, attention, motor control)
somatosensory cortex (in partial lobe)
body sensations/touch
motor cortex (in frontal lobe)
voluntary movements and point-to-point mapping
association cortex (75% of cortex)
not sensory or motor, but associations between
corpus callosum
large bundle of axons that connects the two hemispheres of the brain
left hemisphere
verbal processing, speech, grammar
right hemisphere
spatial perception, visual recognition, emotion
positive emotional responses
more left prefrontal lobe activity
negative emotional responses
more right prefrontal lobe activity
happy brains
prefrontal lobe asymmetry, biofeedback and mindfulness (Awareness) meditation
recovery from brain damage depends on
age of the individual and extent of the damage
repairing the damaged brain
collateral sprouting
substitution of function
neurogenesis
brain tissue grafts
genotype
genetic heritage
effects of experience and environment alters how genetic traits develop
phenotype
observable characteristics both physical and psychological
stressors
circumstances and events that threaten individuals and/or tax their coping abilities
CHAPTER 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
CHAPTER 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
sensation
the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
bottom-up processing
initiated by sensory input
outside world’s influence on perception
top-down processing
initiated by cognitive processing
internal/mental world’s influence on perception
expectations & prior understanding
sensory receptors
specialized cells that selectively detect and transmit sensory information to the brain
cells send signals via distinct neural pathways
synesthesia
one sense induces an experience in another sense
phantom limb pain
photoreception
detection of light
mechanoreception
detection of pressure, vibration, and movement
chemoreception
detection of chemical stimuli
absolute threshold
the minimum amount of energy an organism can detect 50% of the time
nosie
irrelevant and competing stimuli
JND: just noticeable difference
the amount something must be changed in order for a difference to be noticeable, or detectable at least half the time (absolute threshold)
absolute threshold for sound
would be the lowest volume that a person could detect
the just noticeable difference
would be the smallest change in volume that a person could sense
Weber’s law
to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not a constant amount)
subliminal perception
influence of information below the level of conscious awareness
vicary: eat popcorn
straham: thirsty v. non-thirsty words
attention
focusing awareness on a narrowed aspect of the environment selective attention novelty, size, color, movement, emotions emotion-induced blindness unintentional blindness
perceptual set
predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way
sensory adaptation
change in responsiveness of sensory system
based on level of surrounding stimulation (darkened room, bright outdoors)
extrasensory perception
perceive thoughts or events in the absence of concrete sensory input
parapsychology
problematic (doubtful) for science
wavelength
distance between peaks
perceived as hue
some wavelengths beyond human sensation
amplitude
height of wave
perceived as brightness
purity
mixture of wavelengths
perceived as saturation
photo-receptor cells
rods:
sensitive to even dim light, but not color
function well in low illumination
humans have approx. 120 million rods
fovea
densely populated with cones vital to many visual tasks
blind spot
where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball
feature detectors
highly-specialized cells in the visual cortex
size, shape, color, movement, or combination
deprivation studies: brain “learns” perception
visual processing
feature detectors
parallel processing
binding
color vision: theories
trichromatic theory
three types of receptors
green, blue, and red ones
color blindness
one or more cone types is inoperative
afterimage
sensation remains after a stimulus is removed
trichromatic theory cannot explain afterimages
opponent process theory
complementary color pairs
dimensions
shape, depth, motion, constancy
gestalt psychology
perceptions are naturally organized according to certain patterns
whole is different from the sum of the parts
gestalt principles
figure-ground relationship
closure
proximity
similarity
binocular cues
disparity and convergence
perceptual constancies
recognition that objects do not phyicially change despite changes in vantage points and viewing conditions
sensory information changes, but perceptual interpretation does not
wavelength: distance between peaks
determine frequency
perceived as pitch
some wavelengths cannot be perceived
amplitude: height of wave
perceived as loudness
mixture of wavelengths: complex sounds
perceived as timbre/ tone saturation
mixture of wavelengths: complex sounds
perceived as timbre/ tone saturation
place theory of pitch perception
location of stimulation is important
only explains perception of high frequencies
frequency theory of pitch perception
frequency of nerve firing and volley principle
frequency of nerve firing
limitations of neuronal firing rate
volley principle
cell clusters can exceed limitations of firing rate
pathway of auditory information
cochlea, auditory nerve, brain stem, temporal lobe
other senses
skin senses: touch, temperature, and pain chemical: taste and smell kinesthetic vestibular
touch
receptors, spinal cord, thalamus, somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe
temperature
thermoreceptors: warm and cold
simultaneous warm and cold perceived as hot
pain
mechanical, heat, chemical receptors
fast and slow pain pathways
endorphins
perception of pain can vary
empathy
feeling what others are feeling:
“feeling” refers here to emotions and perspectives
MTS: mirror-touch-synesthesia
literally feeling what you see another person feel:
sense of touch
doesn’t happen when they see a non-person touched
overactive mirror neurons
taste
receptors on tongue: papillae
sweet, sour, bitter, salty
cultural influence
smell
olfactory sense:
olfactory epithelium and temporal lobe and limbic system
kinesthetic
movement, posture, orientation
muscle fibers and joints
proprioceptive feedback
vestibular
balance and acceleration
semicircular canals
health and wellness
protecting ones vision and hearing:
diet
medical examinations
avoiding chronic exposure
CHAPTER 6: LEARNING
CHAPTER 6: LEARNING
learning
a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
types of learning
classical and operant conditioning
classical conditioning
helps to explain involuntary behavior and control of a response [fear] is shifted to a new stimulus [office]
operant conditioning
helps to explain voluntary behavior and performing well in swim competition (behavior) and becomes associated with getting awards (consequences)
generalization
CRs may also appear after various new NS that are similar to the CS
discrimination
CRs appear after the CS but not after the CSs and discrimination is generally learned by presenting other CSs without the UCS
extinction
CR weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS and Pavlov rang bell but did not present food; the dog stopped salivating
spontaneous recovery
CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning and when Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated
counterconditioning
assoicate CS with new, incompatible CR
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
consequences strengthens or weakens an S-R connection
B.F. Skinner
expanded on Throndike’s work and shaping (reward approximations of the desired behavior)
positive reinforcement
behavior followed be rewarding consequence and rewarding stimulus is “added”
negative reinforcement
behavior followed by rewarding consequence and aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed”
CHAPTER 7: MEMORY
CHAPTER 7: MEMORY
the nature of memory
retention of information or experience over time
three phases of memory
encoding
storage
retrieval
what is the role of attention?
selective attention (purposive focus) divided attention (multitasking) sustained attention (vigilance)
application: notetaking
handwritten better than laptops
slower writing is “deeper” more attentive
round letter task
R = round K = not round
verbal code
word or label
image code
detailed and distinctive
sensory memory
detailed information in original sensory form very brief duration echoic (auditory) memory iconic (visual) memory
short term memory
limited duration (about 30 seconds) limited capacity
long term memory
relatively permanent with “unlimited” capacity
chunking
grouping items into a unit
rehersal
conscious repetition of information
prolongs STM duration indefinitely
explicit long-term memory (declarative)
episodic memory
semantic memory
implicit long-term memory (nondeclarative)
procedural memory
classical conditioning
priming
declarative memory
conscious recollection of specific facts and events that can be verbally communicated
Bahrick (1984) recall college spanish
initial learning is important
permastore content
effect of distributed practice
subtypes of explicit memory
episodic and semantic
episodic
autobiographical memories
semantic
knowledge about the world
nondeclarative memory
affected by a past experience without consciously recalling it
procedural memory
classical conditioning
priming
schemas
scripts (event schema)
connectionist networks
parallel distributed processing (PDP)
memory: location
storage is diffuse
circuits of neurons
neurotransmitter involvement
long-term potentiation
explicit memory
hippocampus, frontal lobes, amygdala
implicit memory
hippocampus, temporal lobes, cerebellum
serial position effect
tendency to recall items at beginning and end of a list more readily than those in middle
types of tasks
recall and recognition
encoding specificity
information present at encoding effective as retrieval cue and context-dependent memory
autobiographical memories
life time periods: reminiscence bump
general events
event-specific information
emotional memories
flashbulb memories
traumatic events
repressed memories: motivated forgetting: first forgotten and later recovered and Freudian defense mechanism
repressed memories: recovered or created?
most children over age 4 have accurate recall
loss of memory for abuse is possible
false reconstruction of memory is possible
difficult to separate accurate and inaccurate memories
false memories
failure to distinguish real memories (external source) from self-generated thoughts (internal source): distortion, bias, and inaccuracy
distortion
altered by new information
leading questions
trying too hard to remember
proactive
interfering material learned before target material is
retroactive
interfering material learned after target material is
decay theory
passage of time - forgetting
does not explain all instances of forgetting
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
effortful retrieval of known information
can retrieve some but not all information
prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future:
content - remembering what to do
timing - remembering when to do it
absentmindedness
amnesia
anterograde amnesia: inability to store new information and events
retrograde amnesia: inability to retrieve past information and events
study tips - encoding
give undivided attention process deeply make associations use imagery use chunking encode early and often
study tips - rehearse
redo notes talk to others test yourself ask yourself questions rest and eat well
roles of autobiographical memories
learn from our experience
develop sense of identity
bond with others
memory and aging
indicator of brain functioning
activity inoculates against mental decline
both physical and mental activity are important
CHAPTER 5: STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
CHAPTER 5: STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
consciousness
awareness of external events and internal sensations which occurs under conditions of arousal
theory of mind
knowledge that people think and have private experiences
levels of awareness: higher-level consciousness
controlled processing
executive function
requires attention
levels of awareness: lower-level consciousness
automatic processes
daydreaming
levels of awareness: altered states of consciouness
drug states
fatigue, illness, trauma deprivation
meditation, hypnosis
mental disorders
subconscious awareness
incubation and parallel processing
sleep and dreams
low levels of consciousness of outside world
no awareness
unconscious (covered) thought-Freud
non-conscious processes
prosocial behavior
improve well-being of others (not of self)
periodic physiological fluctuations
annual or seasonal and 24-hour cycles
desynchronizing the clock
jet lag
shift-work problems
insomnia
resetting the clock
bright light
melatonin
adaptive evolutionary function
safety
energy conservation/efficiency
restorative function
body rejuvenation and growth
brain plasticity
enhances synaptic connections
memory consolidation
stages of sleep
EEG measures electrical activity in the brain identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep
wakefulness
alpha waves (W-relaxed):
lower frequency
increase in amplitude
synchronous
stage N-1
theta waves
slow frequency
low amplitude (but greater than alpha)
stage N-2
sleep spindles: sudden increase in wave frequency
still light sleep
stage N-3
delta waves
slowest frequency and highest amplitude
deep sleep
bedwetting, sleep walking, sleep talking
stage R (REM sleep)
rapid eye movements
EEG similar to relaxed wakefulness
dreaming
sleep cycles
typically 5 cycles a night
90-100 minutes per cycle
sleep patterns chagne during the night
sleep and the brain
reticular formation and neurotransmitters (NT)
sleep and disease
sleep problems common in Alzheimer disease, stroke, cancer
infectious diseases induce sleep
sleep problems are common in those with mental disorders
sleep disorders
insomnia sleep walking, talking, and eating nightmares and night terrors narcolepsy sleep apnea
theories of dreaming
historical and religious significance
Freud’s Psychodynamic Approach
Cognitive Theory
Activation-Synthesis Theory
psychoactive drugs
act on nervous system to:
alter consciousness
modify perceptions
change moods
psychoactive drugs: effects on users
unsafe sexual behavior
direct and indirect health effects
school, work, and relationship problems
psychological problems
addiction
physical dependence and unpleasant withdrawal and psychological dependence
alcohol
pain relief
relaxation, reduced inhibition
disorientation, death
brain/liver/heart, accidents, birth defects
barbiturates
sleep
relaxation, sleep
breathing difficulty, coma, death
accidents, overdose
tranquilizers
anxiety reduction
relaxation, slowed behavior
breathing difficulty, coma, death
accidents, overdose
opiates (narcotics)
pain relief
euphoria, drowsiness, nausea
convulsions, coma, death
accidents, AIDS, overdose
caffeine
none
alertness, sense of well-being
nervousness, anxiety, disturbed sleep
cardiovascular problems
nicotine
none
stress reduction
nervousness, disturbed sleep
cancer, cardiovascular disease
amphetamines
weight control
alert, excitable, irritable, less fatigue
paranoia, convulsions
insomnia, hypertension, death
cocaine
local anesthetic
alert, excitable, irritable, euphoric
paranoia, convulsions, cardiac arrest
insomnia, hypertension, death
MDMA (ecstasy)
none
hallucinations, sense of well-being
brain damage (memory. cognition)
cardiovascular problems, death
marijuana
treat glaucoma, nausea, pain
mild hallucinations, time distortion
fatigue, disorientation
accidents, respiratory disease
LSD
none
strong hallucinations, time distortion
severe mental disturbance
accidents
hypnosis is marker by
altered attention and expectation and unusual receptiveness to suggestions
four steps in hypnosis
- distractions are minimized
- told to concentrate on something specific
- told what to expect
- certain obvious events/feelings are suggested
explaining hypnosis
divided state of consciousness: obedient to hypnotist and hidden observer
social cognitive behavior: normal conscious state and social expectations for how to act hypnotized
hypnosis is used to
treat various health issues: alcoholism, smoking, somnambulism, and PTSD
effectiveness is debatable and can reduce experience of pain
meditation
a peaceful state of mind, not occupied by worry
mindfulness meditation used to treat a variety of conditions
lovingkindness meditation reduces prejudice
CHAPTER 9: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 9: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
development
the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life: growth and decline -
biological processes
cognitive processes
socioemotional processes
nature
biological inheritance
nurture
environmental experiences
self
individuals take active roles in own development
resilience
a person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times
germinal period (weeks 1-2)
conception, fertilization, and zygote
embryonic period (weeks 3-8)
differentiation of tissue and organ formation
fetal period (months 2-9)
development of functionality
teratogens are agents that cause birth defects:
nicotine
alcohol
STIs
effects of teratogens depend on:
timing of exposure
genetic characteristics
postnatal environment
reflexes are genetically wired behaviors:
persist throughout life and disappear with neurological development
motor skills
locomotion and reach + grasp
preferential looking
give “choice” and measure preferences
brain development
myelination continues after birth
synaptic connections increase dramatically
brain mass increases dramatically
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
children actively construct their cognitive world using:
schemas - concepts or frameworks that organize information
assimilation - apply old (existing) schemas to new experiences
accommodation - adjust/alter schemas to new information
sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years)
coordinate sensations with movements
object permanence
progress from reflexive action to symbolic thought
preoperational stage (2-7 years)
symbolic thinking: words + images
intuitive reasoning
egocentrism
concrete operational stage (7-11 yrs)
operational thinking
classification skills
reason logically in concrete contexts
formal operational stage (11-15 yrs)
lasts through adulthood
abstract and idealistic thought
hypothetical-deductive reasoning
evaluating piaget’s theory
underestimated infant object permanence
overestimated adolescent/adult hypothetical-deductive thought
culture and education also influence development
temperament
an individual’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding
infant attachment
the close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver: may provide important foundation for subsequent development
