Chapter 1 - What Is Philosophy

Question 1

The Philosophical Method

Answer 1

The systematic use of critical reasoning to try to find answers to fundamental questions about reality, morality, and knowledge.

Question 2

Metaphysics

Answer 2

The study of reality in the broadest sense, an inquiry into the elemental nature of the universe and the things in it. Focus: questions science cannot answer.

Question 3

Epistemology

Answer 3

The study of knowledge. What is knowledge? What is truth? Etc.

Question 4

Axiology

Answer 4

The study of value, including both aesthetic value and moral value.

Question 5

Ethics

Answer 5

The study of moral value. Involves inquiries into the nature of moral judgments, virtues, values, obligations, and theories. Good vs. bad, what gives life meaning, what moral principles should guide actions and choices.

Question 6

Logic

Answer 6

Study of correct reasoning. Rules for correct inferences? Nature/structure of deductive arguments?

Question 7

Argument

Group of statements! One supported by the others!

Answer 7

A group of statements in which one of them is meant to be supported by the others.

Question 8

Statement (or claim)

Something is or isn’t = true or false.

Answer 8

An assertion that something is or is not the case and is therefore the kind of utterance that is either true or false.

Question 9

Conclusion

Answer 9

In an argument: the statement being supported.

Ex: Trump is the worst President ever.

Question 10

Premises

Answer 10

The statements supporting the conclusion.

Question 11

Conclusion indicator words

Answer 11

Consequently, as a result, thus, hence, therefore, so, it follows that, which means that

Question 12

Premise Indicator Words

Answer 12

In view of the fact, assuming that, because, since, due to the fact that, for, inasmuch as, given that.

Question 13

Deductive Arguments

If premises true, conclusion must be true!

Answer 13

Intended to give logically conclusive support to their conclusions so that if the premises are true, the conclusion absolutely must be true.

1. If p, then q.
2. p.
3. Therefore, q.

Modus Ponens (valid argument). If premises true, conclusion true.
Modus Tollens (invalid argument). Denying the consequent.

Question 14

Inductive Arguments

Answer 14

Supposed to give probable support to their conclusions. Conclusions “probably true”.

Question 15

Inference to the best explanation.

Daily reasoning, science

Study

Explanation, not proof

Answer 15

A kind of reasoning that we all use daily and that is the heart of scientific investigations.

1. Megan understood the test, she answered every question.
2. She understood because she has good memory.

Attempts to bring clarity, not offer proof. It states how or why something is the case.

Question 16

Criteria of adequacy

Answer 16

Common sense - evaluate explanations.

Question 17

Conservatism

Ex: spaceship

Answer 17

Explanation or theory fits best with what’s already known or established.

Ex: friend tells u she can fly to the moon. What she says conflicts with everything that science knows. It conflicts with so much of what we already know about the world.

Question 18

Simplicity

Answer 18

The best explanation is the one that is the simplest - that is, the one that rests on the fewest assumptions.

What caused the flat tire? Aliens from space? A nail in the road.

COMMON SENSE.

Question 19

Fallacies

Bad, failing, plausible, deceptive

Answer 19

Common, but bad arguments. Failed arguments - deceptively plausible appeals. Potential for slipperiness.

Ex: Straw Man, Appeal to the Person, Appeal to Popularity, Genetic Fallacy, Equivocation, False Dilemma, Begging the Question, Slippery Slope, Composition, Division

Question 20

Straw Man

Proves nothing!

Distorts!

Misrepresents!

Answer 20

Misrepresentation of a person’s views so they can be more easily attacked or dismissed. Proves nothing. Distorts. Most commonly used in politics.

Question 21

Appeal to the person

Answer 21

“Ad hominem”
Rejecting of a statement on the grounds that it comes from a particular person - not because the statement, or claim, itself is false or dubious.

Asks to reject based on character, background, circumstance of person.

Question 22

Appeal to Popularity

Answer 22

Argues that a claim must be true not because it is backed by good reasons, but simply because many people believe it. “truth in numbers”

Question 23

Genetic Fallacy

Answer 23

Arguing that a statement can be judged true or false based on its source. Truth of statement is supposed to depend on origins other than individual - organisations, political platforms, groups, etc.

Question 24

Equivocation

Answer 24

Assigning two different meanings to the same significant word in an argument.

Bad writer; bad boy

Band means both incompetent and immoral.

Question 25

Appeal to Ignorance

Answer 25

Tries to prove something by appealing to what we don’t know.

Argues a claim is true because it hasn’t been proven false, a claim is false because it hasn’t been proven true.

Question 26

False Dilemma

Answer 26

Argues erroneously that since there are only two alternatives to choose from and one of them is unacceptable, the other one must be true.

Question 27

Begging the Question

Answer 27

Tries to prove a conclusion by using that very same conclusion as support. Argues in a circle.

Bible says God exists.
The bible is true because God wrote it.
Therefore, God exists.

Question 28

Slippery Slope

Action should not be taken! Dire consequences when no reason to believe so!

Answer 28

Suggests danger of stepping on a dicey incline, losing your footing, and sliding to disaster. Argues erroneously that a particular action should not be taken because it will lead inevitable to other actions resulting in dire outcome.

“A slippery slope scenario becomes fallacious when there is no reason to believe that the chain of events predicted will ever happen.”

Question 29

Composition!

Parts = the whole!

Ex: part of house is heavy, the whole house must be heavy.

Answer 29

Argues erroneously that what can be said of parts can also be said of the whole.

Question 30

Division - The Parts

Answer 30

Argues erroneously that what can be said of the whole can be said of the parts.

“The house is heavy. Therefore every part of the house is heavy.”

Question 31

Plato

Answer 31

Allegory of the Cave: explores his theories of knowledge and metaphysics - metaphor for the search for the true and the good thru philosophy.

The Apology (Socrates): “I know nothing”. Intellectual humility.

Question 32

John Locke

Answer 32

Religious people, must beware, lest they allow their imagination and passion (enthusiasm) to run away with them.

Reason and faith are compatible. Claims must be supported with sufficient evidence. Lovers of truth.

Question 33

Bertrand Russell - the beauty of uncertainty, the “practical” man, may or find the answers, but closer to an answer than we were before.

Answer 33

Argues that the value of philosophy is not in any ability to produce material goods (it bakes no bread) or arrive at definitive conclusions about the nature of reality, but its effect upon the lives of those who take it seriously.