Chapter 1 - The Science of Human Development

Question 1

Science of human development

Answer 1

The science that seeks to understand why all people change or remain the same

Question 2

Scientific method

Answer 2

1. Pose a question
2. Develop a hypothesis
3. Test the hypothesis
4. Draw conclusions (support or refute)
5. Report the results

Question 3

Empirical data

Answer 3

Evidence based on observation, experience, or experiment. NOT theory or opinion

Question 4

Replication

Answer 4

Repeating a specific scientific method with differing subjects to reinforce or reject conclusions

Question 5

Nature

Answer 5

The influence of genes on an organism

Question 6

Nurture

Answer 6

Environmental influences on an organism

Question 7

Epigenetics

Answer 7

The study of how environmental factors affect gene expression

Question 8

Differential susceptibility

Answer 8

The idea that the effect of any experience differs from one person to another due to particular genes that a person has inherited

Question 9

‘Dandelion’ v. ‘Orchid’

Answer 9

Refers to concept of differential susceptibility

Dandelion children - Hardy and growing regardless of rearing

Orchid children - Require stricter conditions and reading in order to thrive

Question 10

Lifespan perspective

Answer 10

Approach to human developments study that encompasses all phases of life from conception until death

Question 11

What are the classic age ranges when considering development

Answer 11

Infant: 0-2 years
Early childhood: 2-6 years
Middle childhood: 6-11 years
Adolescence: 11- 18 years
Emerging adulthood: 18-25 years
Adulthood: 25-65 years
Late adulthood: 65+ years

Question 12

What does it mean when development is referred as “multi-directional”

Answer 12

That there are various patterns of growth, and not just a linear growth from infancy to adulthood

Question 13

Critical period

Answer 13

Time when a particular development must occur. If it does not then it can not develop later

E.g. The development of extremities in a fetus between 28 to 54 days

Question 14

Sensitive period

Answer 14

Time when a particular developmental growth is likely to appear, but can appear at a later time

e.g. Learning a language fluently between ages 1 to 3

Question 15

Ecological-systems approach

Answer 15

Presented by Urie Bronfenbrenner

A perspective on human development that considers all of the influences from various contexts of development

Question 16

What are the levels of the ecological-system model (from specific to generalized)

Answer 16

The Developing Person - Factors such as age, sex, health, etc.

1. Microsystem - Family, classroom, neighborhood, and other local systems that the individual interacts with
2. Mesosystem - Interaction of the micro- and exo- systems
3. Exosystem - Overarching systems such as the educational system, medical institutions, mass media, etc.
4. Macrosystem - Cultural patterns, and economic philosophies, and social conditions
5. Chronosystem - The context of time, changing conditions and societal patterns through the ages

Question 17

Cohort

Answer 17

A group defined by it’s members shared age

Question 18

Socioeconomic status (SES)

Answer 18

A person’s position in society as determined by income, occupation, education, and place of residence

Question 19

Culture

Answer 19

The system of shared beliefs, conventions, norms, behaviors, expectations, and symbolic representations that persist over time and prescribe social rules of conduct

Question 20

True or false: A blue-collar worker and a college graduate with a masters degree who both make $18,000 are of the same socioeconomic status

Answer 20

False. SES is also based on other factors, not just income. The fact that the college graduate has a degree that is held in higher regard socially means that they are of a higher SES just by that virtue

Question 21

Social construction

Answer 21

An idea that is built on shared perceptions, but NOT an objective reality

Question 22

Difference-equals-deficit error

Answer 22

The mistaken belief held by many that a deviation from some norm is necessarily form

Question 23

Guided participation

Answer 23

Concept by Russian developmentalist Lev Vygotsky

A universal process used by mentors to teach cultural knowledge, skills, and habits

Question 24

Ethic group

Answer 24

People who’s ancestors were born in the same region. Usually share a language, culture, and/or religion

Question 25

Race

Answer 25

Concept that some people are distinct from other based on appearance, usually skin color

A social construction not based in biology

Question 26

Plasticity

Answer 26

The idea that abilities, personality, and other human characteristics are moldable and changeable

Question 27

Dynamic-systems approach

Answer 27

A view of human development as an ongoing ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences

Question 28

Developmental theory

Answer 28

A group of ideas about human growth. Provides a framework to interpret growth and change

Question 29

Psychoanalytic theory

Answer 29

Human development theory that contends that irrational, unconscious drives and motives explain human behavior.

Originated with Sigmund Freud

Question 30

True or false: Freud’s Psychosexual theories are used in contemporary developmental studies

Answer 30

False

Question 31

What was Freud’s developmental theory?

Answer 31

Development occurs in various stages each characterized by sexual pleasure of a body part

1) Oral - Birth to 1 yr
2) Anal - 1 to 3 yrs
3) Phallic - 3 to 6 yrs
4) Latency - 6 to 11 yrs
5) Genital - Adolescence to adulthood

Question 32

What was Erik Erickson’s developmental theory

Answer 32

Built upon Freud’s theory, Erick theorized that there are two ‘polarities’ at each developmental stage

1) Trust vs. Mistrust - Birth to 1 yr
2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt - 1 yr to 3 yrs
3) Initiative vs. Guilt - 3 yr to 6 yrs
4) Industry vs. Inferiority - 6 yr to 11 yrs
5) Identity vs. Role Confusion - Adolescence

Erick also added three additional stages to adulthood based on his experiences

6) Intimacy vs. Isolation
7) Generatively vs. Stagnation
8) Integrity vs. Despair

Question 33

Behaviorism

Answer 33

A developmental theory that focuses on the observable actions of humans

Question 34

What are the three types of learning in behaviorism?

Answer 34

1) Classical conditioning - Response linked to neutral stimuli (e.g. Pavlov’s Bell)
2) Operant conditioning - Using punishment or reward to learn behavior
3) Social learning - Copying observed behaviors

Question 35

Cognitive theory

Answer 35

Developmental theory that focuses on how people think. Thoughts shape attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors

Championed by Jean Piaget

Question 36

What stages are present in Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development?

Answer 36

1) Sensorimotor (Birth to 2 yrs) - Infants use senses and motor abilities to begin to understand the world around them
2) Preoperational (2 to 6 yrs) - Children think symbolically but are unable to perceive from any other point of view but their own
3) Concrete operational (6 to 11 yrs) - Children understand and being to apply logic to understand concepts and classifications
4) Formal operational (12 yrs to adulthood) - Adolescents and adults are able to use abstract and hypothetical to analyze

Question 37

Cognitive equilibrium

Answer 37

According to the developmental theory of cognitive development, it is a mental balance that humans seek to achieve

Question 38

Evolutionary theory

Answer 38

A developmental theory that human emotions and impulses are a legacy from thousands of years of evolution

Question 39

What is allocare in the context of evolutionary theory

Answer 39

Care given to an infant that is not the mother; shared child rearing. In humans this can be the father, other family members, or even daycare

Explains why humans can reproduce rapidly: shared responsibility among other humans lessens the burden of child-rearing

Question 40

Scientific observation

Answer 40

Watching and recording behavior in a systemic and objective manner

Question 41

Cross-sectional research

Answer 41

Research designed that compares people who differ in age but not in other important characteristics

Age is the independent variable in this type of developmental research

Question 42

Longitudinal research

Answer 42

Research design that follows the same individuals over a set period of time

Question 43

Cross-sequential research

Answer 43

Hybrid research model that includes cross-sectional and longitudinal research

The most complicated and time-consuming developmental research model, but yields the best results possible

Question 44

Correlation

Answer 44

Indication where a variable increases or decreases based on a specific value increasing or decreasing

Does NOT prove causality

Question 45

Quantitative research

Answer 45

Research that provides data expressed with numbers

Question 46

Qualitative research

Answer 46

Research that reflect cultural and contextual diversity

Question 47

Why is developmental research usually qualitative instead of quantitative? What issues does qualitative research pose?

Answer 47

Qualitative research reflects cultural and contextual diversity better

The issue with it is that it is hard to replicate and more vulnerable to bias

Question 48

What is the review board for ethics within medical or educational institutions usually called?

Answer 48

Institutional Review Board (IRB)